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Between a rock and a hard place: rugged terrain features and human disturbance affect behaviour and habitat use of Sumatran elephants in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia

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Abstract

Asian elephants are threatened throughout their range due to habitat loss, fragmentation, and conflict with humans. Limited data on spatial and temporal use of habitats in largely intact forests by elephants in Sumatra is a major hindrance for conservation and land use planning, and consequently human–elephant conflict mitigation. We analysed GPS data from collared elephants to investigate their use of habitat in relation to available land cover and human disturbance in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia. We applied remote sensing techniques to extract environmental variables to use in state-space Hidden Markov Models and integrated Step Selection Function to analyse foraging strategies and land use selectivity, while using dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Models and Minimum Convex Polygons to determine used and available habitat features within their home ranges. Our results show that Sumatran elephants in Aceh preferred areas with lower elevation (< 200 m) and slopes (0–10°), with minimal terrain ruggedness, which also happen to be areas selected by humans. Elephants closely adhered to rivers and mountain valleys when utilizing homogenous dense natural forests, and expanded from the rivers in heterogenous forests toward open, resource-dense, land use types. Overall, slope, vegetation, and human disturbance had the largest impact on each of the clans’ foraging strategies. Areas closer to human settlements were used more by night and less by day, indicating that human presence and activities influence elephant habitat use and avoidance. Our findings conclude future management decisions should focus on protecting the remaining lowland forests and preventing further urban encroachment in areas with lower elevation and slope, particularly in proximity to rivers which act as corridors between natural habitats, in order to mitigate human-elephant conflict and protect the species from extinction.

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Data availability

Owing to the sensitive conservation status of Sumatran Elephants, data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available; restrictions apply to the availability of these data used under license for the current study. Data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request with permission from BKSDA-Aceh.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Heads, Genman Hasibuan and Sapto Aji Prabowo and Staff of Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam (BKSDA-Aceh) for permitting this study and providing logistic support. GW is grateful to the local people and Community Rangers for their help in following the elephants throughout the study. Research permits, facilitated by Bournemouth University, UK, and International Elephant Foundation, USA, were issued by the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education (RISTEKDIKTI) (permit numbers: 146/SIP/FRP/E5/Dit.KI/V/2016, 170/SIP/FRP/E5/Dit.KI/VII/2017, 22/EXT/SIP/FRP/E5/Dit.KI/VI/2018) and BKSDA-Aceh (S.328/BKSDA.9/2016, S.712/BKSDA.9/2016, S.378/K.20/TU/KSA.2.1/4/2017, S.564/K.20/TU/KSA.2.1/7/2018) to GW. We thank Deborah Olson, Kylie Bullo, Leif Cocks and Nida Al-Fulaij for their invaluable support of this project. Eva Gazange provided statistical advice on Hidden Markov models. The Editors and three anonymous reviewers provided feedback on earlier versions of the manuscript that has helped substantially improve the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by International Elephant Foundation and Elephant Research Foundation M. Philip Kahl Postdoctoral Fellowship, USA, People’s Trust for Endangered Species, UK, International Elephant Project, Australia and Columbus Zoo, USA, to GW. Astra Agro Lestari supported collaring one elephant.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Syiah Kuala University, Kopelma, Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Aceh, 23111, Indonesia

    Gaius Wilson, Hasanuddin Hasanuddin, Wahdi Azmi, Arman Sayuti, Hambal Muhammad, Abdullah Abdullah, B. S. Nazamuddin, Hizir Sofyan & Christopher Stremme

  2. M. Philip Kahl Postdoctoral Research Fellow (Funded by) International Elephant Foundation, P.O. Box 366, Azle, Texas, 76098, USA

    Gaius Wilson

  3. 705 Alligator Ranch Rd., New Smyrna Beach, Florida, 32168, USA

    Russell J. Gray

  4. Fauna & Flora International Aceh Programme, Jl. Tenggiri No.4, Bandar Baru, Kuta Alam, Banda Aceh, Aceh, 24415, Indonesia

    Radinal Radinal

  5. Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, PO Box 715, Greenbrier, Arkansas, 72058,, USA

    Heidi S. Riddle

  6. B.C. 84 Camp, Belgaum, Karnataka, 590001, India

    Ajay A. Desai

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  1. Gaius Wilson
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Contributions

GW and AAD conceived the idea, designed the study, collected the data, and led the writing of the manuscript. GW and RJG analysed the data. RJG contributed to writing the manuscript. All authors contributed critically to the drafts and gave final approval for publication.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gaius Wilson.

Additional information

Communicated by Karen E. Hodges.

Deceased: Ajay A. Desai. This manuscript is dedicated to Mr. Ajay A. Desai, co-author and scientific advisor to this project, who passed away on the 20th of November 2020. Ajay, former co-chair of the IUCN-SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, dedicated his life to the conservation of Asian elephants spanning almost 4 decades.

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Wilson, G., Gray, R.J., Radinal, R. et al. Between a rock and a hard place: rugged terrain features and human disturbance affect behaviour and habitat use of Sumatran elephants in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodivers Conserv 30, 597–618 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-02105-3

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