Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Linking the seven forms of rarity to extinction threats and risk factors: an assessment of North American fireflies

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Biodiversity and Conservation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Two key problems in trying to link rarity to extinction risk have been conflating threats with risk factors, and over-reliance on a rarity construct that fails to capture many relevant risk factors. In this study, we disentangle threats from risk factors and show how their interaction can be used to predict extinction risk. We also investigate the sensitivity of rarity classifications to various thresholds, including biologically meaningful ones. We use the 168 species of North American firefly beetles (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) as our focal family to examine rarity classifications, and to illustrate the importance of clearly distinguishing between risk factors and threats in evaluating extinction risk. Our results show that, beyond rarity, fireflies exhibit numerous risk factors, including diet specialization, poor dispersal ability, light-based mating signals, symbiotic associations, and behaviors that can result in Allee effects, that make them susceptible to various global threats. This suggests that, for this group and perhaps other taxa, rarity type cannot be used as a surrogate for extinction risk. By identifying threats and risk factors and clearly distinguishing between them, this study should facilitate future assessments of extinction risk for this family, and the approach could be used for other taxa.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alpert G (2016) Ask a ranger: a tale of two beetles. In Arizona Daily Sun. https://azdailysun.com/sports/local/ask-a-ranger-a-tale-of-two-beetles/article_aee874c6-e197-51b7-b85d-30da2d72ef67.html

  • Atkins V, Bell D, Bowker A, Charig M, Crew J, Dale M, Hickmott B, Payne B, Pendleton D, Pendleton T, Robinson M, Wollen K, Woodell B, Tyler J (2017) The status of the glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca L. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) in England. Lampyrid 4:20–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer CM, Nachman G, Lewis SM, Faust LF, Reed JM (2013) Modeling effects of harvest on firefly population persistence. Ecol Model 256:43–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Beissinger SR, Reed JM, Wunderle JM, Robinson SK, Finch DM (2000) Conservation report: report of the AOU conservation committee on the partners in flight species prioritization plan. Auk 117:549–561

    Google Scholar 

  • Bek RJ (2015) Investigating the impact of artificial night lighting on the common European glow-worm, Lampyris noctiluca (L.) (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Biological Sciences. University of Leeds

  • Bennett PM, Owens IPF (1997) Variation in extinction risk among birds: chance or evolutionary predisposition? Proc R Soc B 264:401–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Bird S, Parker J (2014) Low levels of light pollution may block the ability of male glow-worms (Lampyris noctiluca L.) to locate females. J Insect Conserv 18:737–743

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth D, Stewart AJA, Osorio D (2004) Colour vision in the glow-worm Lampyris noctiluca (L.) (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): evidence for a green-blue chromatic mechanism. J Exp Biol 207:2373–2378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowden J, Church BM (1973) The influence of moonlight on catches of insects in light-traps in Africa. Part II. The effect of moon phase on light-trap catches. Bull Entomol Res 63:129–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook BW, Sodhi NS, Bradshaw CJA (2008) Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends Ecol Evol 23:453–460

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buck JB (1938) Synchronous rhythmic flashing of fireflies. Q Rev Biol 13:301–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Buck J (1988) Synchronous rhythmic flashing of fireflies. 2. Q Rev Biol 63:265–289

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke RL, Humphrey SR (1987) Rarity as a criterion for endangerment in florida’s fauna. Oryx 21:97–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Caiafa AN, Martins FR (2010) Forms of rarity of tree species in the southern Brazilian Atlantic rainforest. Biodivers Conserv 19:2597–2618

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardillo M, Mace GM, Gittleman JL, Jones KE, Bielby J, Purvis A (2008) The predictability of extinction: biological and external correlates of decline in mammals. Proc R Soc London B 275:1441–1448

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso P, Erwin TL, Borges PAV, New TR (2011) The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them. Biol Conserv 144:2647–2655

    Google Scholar 

  • De Cock R, Faust L, Lewis S (2014) Courtship and mating in Phausis reticulata (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): male flight behaviors, female glow displays, and male attraction to light traps. Fla Entomol 97:1290–1307

    Google Scholar 

  • Dias MS, Tedesco PA, Hugueny B, Jézéquel C, Beauchard O, Brosse S, Oberdorff T (2017) Anthropogenic stressors and riverine fish extinctions. Ecol Indic 79:37–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Disque HH, Hamby KA, Dubey A, Taylor C, Dively GP (2018) Effects of clothianidin-treated seed on the arthropod community in a mid-Atlantic no-till corn agroecosystem. Pest Manag Sci. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5201

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan RP, Young JR (2000) Determinants of plant extinction and rarity 145 years after European settlement of Auckland, New Zealand. Ecology 81:3048–3061

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan WF, Unmack PJ, Burgess C, Minckley W (2002) Rarity, fragmentation, and extinction risk in desert fishes. Ecology 83:3250–3256

    Google Scholar 

  • Fattorini S (2011) Insect rarity, extinction and conservation in urban Rome (Italy): a 120-year-long study of tenebrionid beetles. J Insect Conserv Divers 4:307–315

    Google Scholar 

  • Fattorini S, Di Giulio A, Dapporto L (2013) Measuring insect rarity: practical issues, pragmatic approaches. J Insect Biodivers 1:1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Faust LF (2010) Natural history and flash repertoire of the firefly Photinus carolinus (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Fla Entomol 93:208–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Faust L (2017) Fireflies, glow-worms, and lightning bugs: identification and natural history of the fireflies of the Eastern and Central United States and Canada. University of Georgia Press, Athens

    Google Scholar 

  • Fender KM (1961) Family Lampyridae. In: Hatch MH (ed) The beetles of the Pacific Northwest Part III: Pselaphidae and Diversicornia I. University of Washington Press, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • Fender KM (1966) The genus Phausis in America North of Mexico (Coleopter-Lampyridae). Northwest Sci 40:83–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Fender KM (1970) Ellychnia of Western North America (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Northwest Sci 44:31–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Firebaugh A, Haynes KJ (2016) Experimental tests of light-pollution impacts on nocturnal insect courtship and dispersal. Oecologia 182:1203–1211

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner T (2011) Glowing, glowing, gone. The plight of the glow‐worm in Essex Colby: British Naturalists’ Association

  • Gaston KJ (1994) Rarity. Chapman and Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Green JW (1956) Revision of the Nearctic species of Photinus (Lampyridae: Coleoptera). Proc Calif Acad Sci Fourth Ser 28:561–613

    Google Scholar 

  • Green JW (1957) Revision of the Nearctic species of Pyractomena (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Wasmann J Biol 15:237–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Green JW (1961) Revision of the species of Pyropyga (Lampyridae). Coleopt Bull 15:65–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen O, Viviani VR (2009) Investigation of the artificial night lighting influence in firefly (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) occurrence in the urban areas of Campinas and Sorocaba municipalities. pp 13–17

  • Hagen O, Santos RM, Schlindwein MN, Viviani VR (2015) Artificial night lighting reduces firefly (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) occurrence in Sorocaba, Brazil. Adv Entomol 3:24

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt AH, Coppeto S, Parks S (2002) Rarity, specialization and extinction in primates. J Biogeogr 29:445–456

    Google Scholar 

  • Harnik PG, Simpson C, Payne JL (2012) Long-term differences in extinction risk among the seven forms of rarity. Proc R Soc Lond B 279:4969–4976

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckscher CM (2010) Delaware Photuris fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): new state records, conservation status, and habitat associations. Entomol News 121:498–505

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckscher CM (2013) Photuris mysticalampas (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): a new firefly from peatland floodplain forests of the Delmarva peninsula. Entomol News 123:93–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckscher CM, Bartlett CR (2004) Rediscovery and habitat associations of Photuris bethaniensis McDermott (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Coleopt Bull 58:349–353

    Google Scholar 

  • Ineichen S, Rüttimann B (2012) Impact of artificial light on the distribution of the common European glow-worm, Lampyris noctiluca (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Lampyrid 2:31–36

    Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (2012) IUCN Red List categories and criteria: version 3.1. IUCN, Gland

    Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (2017) Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. Version 13

  • Jusoh W, Hashim NR (2012) The effect of habitat modification on firefly populations at the Rembau-Linggi estuary, Peninsular Malaysia. Lampyrid 2:149–155

    Google Scholar 

  • Jusoh W, Hashim NR, Ibrahim ZZ (2010) Firefly distribution and abundance on mangrove vegetation assemblages in Sepetang estuary, Peninsular Malaysia. Wetl Ecol Manage 18:367–373

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakehashi K, Kuranishi RB, Kamata N (2014) Estimation of dispersal ability responding to environmental conditions: larval dispersal of the flightless firefly, Luciola parvula (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Ecol Res 29:779–787

    Google Scholar 

  • Kattan GH (1992) Rarity and vulnerability: the birds of the cordillera central of Colombia. Conserv Biol 6:64–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Khoo V, NADA B, Kirton L (2014) Conservation of the Selangor River population of Pteroptyx tener in Malaysia: results of seven years of monitoring. In: International Firefly Symposium

  • Lacy RC (2000) Considering threats to the viability of small populations using individual-based models. Ecol Bull 48:39–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Lande R (1993) Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophies. Am Nat 142:911–927

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lande R (1998) Demographic stochasticity and Allee effects on a scale with isotropic noise. Oikos 83:353–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee K-Y, Kim Y-H, Lee J-W, Song M-K, Nam S-H (2008) Toxicity of firefly, Luciola lateralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) to commercially registered insecticides and fertilizers. Korean J Appl Entomol 47:265–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis SM (2016) Silent sparks: the wondrous world of fireflies. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis SM, Monchamp JD (1994) Sexual and temporal differences in Phorid parasitism of Photinus marginellus fireflies (Coleoptera, Lampyridae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 87:572–575

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis SM, Owens ACS (2017) China’s endangered fireflies. In: Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/chinas-endangered-fireflies/

  • Lloyd JE (1966) Studies on the flash communication system in Photinus fireflies. Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan vol. 30, pp 1–95

  • Lloyd JE (2003) On research and entomological education VI: firefly species and lists, old and now. Fla Entomol 86:99–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd JE (2008) Fireflies. In: Capinera JL (ed) Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer, New York, pp 1429–1452

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd JE (2018) A naturalist’s long walk among shadows: of North American Photuris—patterns, outlines, silhouettes… echoes. Self-published, Gainesville, FL

  • Mace GM, Kershaw M (1997) Extinction risk and rarity on an ecological timescale. In: Kunin WE, Gaston KJ (eds) The biology of rarity. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 130–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Manne LL, Pimm SL (2001) Beyond eight forms of rarity: which species are threatened and which will be next?. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 221–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Manne LL, Brooks TM, Pimm SL (1999) Relative risk of extinction of passerine birds on continents and islands. Nature 399:258–261

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney ML (1997) How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view. In: Kunin WΕ, Gaston KJ (eds) The biology of rarity. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 110–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Millsap BA, Gore JA, Runde DE, Cerulean SI (1990) Setting priorities for the conservation of fish and wildlife species in florida. J Wildl Manage 54:1–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Moiseff A, Copeland J (2010) Firefly synchrony: a behavioral strategy to minimize visual clutter. Science 329:181

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nada B, Kirton LG, Norma-Rashid Y, Khoo V (2009) Conservation efforts for the synchronous fireflies of the Selangor River in Malaysia. In: Napompeth B (ed) Proceedings of the 2008 international symposium on diversity and conservation of fireflies. Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp 160–171

  • Napompeth B (2009) Diversity and conservation of fireflies. In: Proceedings of the international symposium on fireflies, Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, Thailand

  • O’Grady JJ, Reed DH, Brook BW, Frankham R (2004) What are the best correlates of predicted extinction risk? Biol Conserv 118:513–520

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohba N (2004) Mystery of fireflies. Yokosuka City Museum, Yokosuka (in Japanese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Olden JD, Poff NL, Bestgen KR (2008) Trait synergisms and the rarity, extirpation, and extinction risk of desert fishes. Ecology 89:847–856

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Owens ACS, Lewis SM (2018) The impact of artificial light at night on nocturnal insects: a review and synthesis. Ecol Evol 8:11337–11358

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pacheco YM, Martin GJ, Bybee SM (2016) On the phototactic response of Rwandan Diaphanes Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) to a trap with a 630 nm red light. Coleopt Bull 70:559–561

    Google Scholar 

  • Panjabi AO, Blancher PJ, Easton WE, Stanton JC, Demarest DW, Dettmers R, Rosenberg KV, Committee PiFS (2017) The Partners in Flight handbook on species assessment Version 2017. In: Partners in Flight

  • Picchi MS, Avolio L, Azzani L, Brombin O, Camerini G (2013) Fireflies and land use in an urban landscape: the case of Luciola italica L. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) in the city of Turin. J Insect Conserv 17:797–805

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitman NCA, Terborgh J, Silman MR, Nuñez P (1999) Tree species distributions in an upper Amazonian forest. Ecology 80:2651–2661

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz D (1981) Seven forms of rarity. In: Synge H (ed) The biological aspects of rare plant conservation. Wiley, Chichester, pp 205–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz D, Cairns S, Dillon T (1986) Seven forms of rarity and their frequency in the flora of the British Isles. In: Soulé ME (ed) Conservation biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associates Inc, Sunderland, pp 182–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed JM (1992) A system for ranking conservation priorities for neotropical migrant birds based on relative susceptibility to extiction. Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., pp 524–536

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed JM, McCoy ED (2014) Relation of minimum viable population size to biology, time frame, and objective. Conserv Biol 28:867–870

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reed JM, Stockwell CA (2014) Evaluating an icon of population persistence: the Devil’s Hole pupfish. Proc R Soc B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1648

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robbirt KM, Roberts DL, Hawkings JA (2006) Comparing IUCN and probabilisic assessments of threat: do IUCN red list criteria conflate rarity and threat? Biodivers Conserv 15:1903–1912

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooney J, Lewis SM (2002) Fitness advantage from nuptial gifts in female fireflies. Ecol Entomol 27:373–377

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg DK (2019) A tale of two voles: the challenge of the commonness-rarity continuum in conservation planning: ST: commonness-rarity continuum in conservation planning. For Ecol Manage 434:165–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Salafsky N, Salzer D, Stattersfield AJ, Hilton-Taylor C, Neugarten R, Butchart SHM, Collen BEN, Cox N, Master LL, O’Connor S (2008) A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unified classifications of threats and actions. Conserv Biol 22:897–911

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sivinski JM, Lloyd JE, Beshers SN, Davis LR, Sivinski RG, Wing SR, Sullivan RT, Cushing PE, Petersson E (1998) A natural history of Pleotomodes needhami, Green (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): a firefly symbiont of ants. Coleopt Bull 52:23–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Thancharoen A (2012) Well-managed firefly tourism: a good tool for firefly conservation in Thailand. Lampyrid 2:142–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas CD, Mallorie HC (1985) Rarity, species richness and conservation: butterflies of the Atlans Mountains in Morocco. Biol Conserv 33:95–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Toledo LF, Becker CG, Haddad CFB, Zamudio KR (2014) Rarity as an indicator of endangerment in neotropical frogs. Biol Conserv 179:54–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Viviani VR, Rocha MY, Hagen O (2010) Bioluminescent Beetles (Coleoptera: Elateroidea: Lampyridae, Phengodidae, Elateridae) in the Municipalities of Campinas, Sorocaba-Votorantim and Rio Claro-Limeira (SP, Brazil): Biodiversity and Influence of Urban Sprawl. Biota Neotrop 10:103–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang YY, Fu XH, Lei CL, Jeng ML, Nobuyoshi O (2007) Biological characteristics of the terrestrial firefly Pyrocoelia pectoralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Coleopt Bull 61:85–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Yiu V (2012) Effect of artificial light on firefly flashing activity. http://www.hkentsocorg/newslener/HKES_newsletter_2012(4).pdf. Accessed 4 Nov 2012

  • Yu J, Dobson FS (2000) Seven forms of rarity in mammals. J Biogeogr 27:131–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuma M (1993) Hotaru no mizu, hito no mizu (Fireflies’ Water, Human’s Water). Shinhy-oron, Tokyo

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuma M, Hori M (1981) Gregarious oviposition of Luciola cruciata Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Physiology and Ecology Japan 18:93–112

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Candace Fallon of The Xerces Society for extensive work in compiling a list of North American species and relevant references, and Jessica Rozek for helping design Fig. 1. AN was partially supported by a Tufts University Summer Scholars fellowship. The manuscript was improved by the comments of three anonymous reviewers.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, 02155, USA

    J. Michael Reed, Annie Nguyen, Avalon C. S. Owens & Sara M. Lewis

Authors
  1. J. Michael Reed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Annie Nguyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Avalon C. S. Owens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sara M. Lewis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. Michael Reed.

Additional information

Communicated by Raphael K. Didham.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This article belongs to the Topical Collection: Biodiversity protection and reserves.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 50 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Reed, J.M., Nguyen, A., Owens, A.C.S. et al. Linking the seven forms of rarity to extinction threats and risk factors: an assessment of North American fireflies. Biodivers Conserv 29, 57–75 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01869-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01869-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation