Abstract
Coptotermes formosanus, known in its native China as the ‘House White Ant’, was introduced to the southeast USA likely in the 1950s, where it is known as the Formosan subterranean termite. In the USA it is best known as a pest of buildings in urban areas, however C. formosanus also attacks live trees along streets and in urban parks, suggesting it may be able to invade forests in the USA. A survey of 113 forest patches around Charleston South Carolina and New Orleans Louisiana, where C. formosanus was first recorded, found that 37% and 52%, respectively, were infested. Resistograph measurement of internal hollows in tree trunks in forest patches infested with C. formosanus found infested sites contained more and larger hollows compared with non-infested sites. Compared with forest patches free of C. formosanus, infested patches had 32% more trees with hollows in Charleston, and 115% more in New Orleans. Similarly, compared with patches free of C. formosanus, hollows were 2–3 times larger in infested patches in Charleston, and 2–6 times larger in New Orleans. Quercus (oak) and Acer (maple) were the most damaged trees in Charleston, whereas Carya (bitternut hickory), Taxodium (bald cypress), Nyssa (blackgum) and Liquidamber (sweetgum) were the most damaged in New Orleans. As termite damaged trees are more likely to die, these differing damage levels between tree species suggests that C. formosanus may alter community structure in US forests.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abe T, Watanabe H (1981) Soil macrofauna in a subtropical rain forest and its adjacent cassava plantation in Okinawa; with special reference to the activity of termites. Physiol Ecol Jpn 20(2):101–114
Andersen AN, Jacklyn P (1993) Termites of the top end. CSIRO, Melbourne
Apolinárioa FE, Martius C (2004) Ecological role of termites (Insecta, Isoptera) in tree trunks in central Amazonian rain forests. Forest Ecol Manag 194:23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.01.052
Atkinson TH, Rust MK, Smith JL (1993) The Formosan termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) established in California. Pan-Pac Entomol 69:111–113
Aukema JE, McCullough DG, Von Holle B, Liebhold AM, Britton K, Frankel SJ (2010) Historical accumulation of nonindigenous forest pests in the continental United States. Bioscience 60:886–897. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.5
Aukema JE, Leung B, Kovacs K, Chivers C, Britton KO, Englin J, Frankel SJ, Haight RG, Holmes FP, Liebhold AM, McCullough DG, Von Holle B (2011) Economic impacts of non-native forest insects in the continental United States. PLoS ONE 6(9):e24587. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024587
Bailey WW (1901) Report on the attack of white or termites—‘Termes gestroi’ on para rubber trees. Agric Bull Straits Fed Malay States 1:27–29. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/148131#page/43/mode/1up. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
Bandeira AG (1993) Nota sobre Coptotermes (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae), praga em floresta nativa da Amazônia. Brasil Revta Bras Ent 37:189–191
Beal RH (1987) Introduction of Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki to the continental United States. In: Tamashiro M, Su NY (eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Proceedings of the international symposium on the Formosan subterranean termite. University of Hawaii, Research Extension Series 083, pp 48–53
Benson EP, Hathorne K, Zungoli PA (2000) Entomology insect information series: termites of South Carolina. Clemson University, cooperative extension. https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/termites-of-south-carolina/. Accessed 15 May 2018
Birt AG, Coulson RN (2015) Southern pine beetle herbivory in the southern United States: moving from external disturbance to internal process. In: Perera A, Sturtevant B, Buse L (eds) Simulation modeling of forest landscape disturbances. Springer, Cham, pp 165–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19809-5_7
Bowden J (1982) An analysis of factors affecting catches of insects in light-traps. Bull Ent Res 72:535–556. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300008579
Brown KS, Yokum BP, Riegel C, Carroll MK (2007) New parish records of Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Louisiana. Fla Entomol 90:570–572. https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2007)90%5b570:NPROCF%5d2.0.CO;2
Cameron DA, Ivers DJ, Evans TA, Myerscough MR (2008) Optimal reproduction strategies in two species of mound-building termites. Bull Math Biol 70:189–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11538-007-9248-3
Chambers DM, Zungoli PA, Hill HS Jr (1988) Distribution and habitats of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in South Carolina. J Econ Entomol 81:1611–1619. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/81.6.1611
Chiu C-I, Yeh H-T, Tsai M-J, Li H-F (2016) Naturalization and control of Coptotermes gestroi (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) in a Taiwanese Forest. J Econ Entomol 109:1317–1325. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tow050
Connétable S, Robert A, Bordereau C (2012) Dispersal flight and colony development in the fungus-growing termites Pseudacanthotermes spiniger and P. militaris. Insectes Soc 59:269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-011-0216-4
Cowie RH, Logan JWM, Wood TG (1989) Termite (Isoptera) damage and control in tropical forestry with special reference to Africa and Indo-Malaysia: a review. Bull Ent Res 79:173–184. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300018150
Evangelista PH, Kumar S, Stohlgren TJ, Young NE (2011) Assessing forest vulnerability and the potential distribution of pine beetles under current and future climate scenarios in the Interior West of the US. Forest Ecol Manag 262:307–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.03.036
Evans TA (2002a) Assessing efficacy of Termatrac™; a new microwave based technology for non-destructive detection of termites (Isoptera). Sociobiology 40:575–583
Evans TA (2002b) Tunnel specificity and forager movement in subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae). Bull Ent Res 92:193–201. https://doi.org/10.1079/BER2002157
Evans TA, Lenz M, Gleeson PV (1998) Testing assumptions of mark-recapture protocols for estimating population size using Australian, mound-building, subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae). Ecol Entomol 23:139–159
Evans TA, Forschler BT, Grace JK (2013) Biology of invasive termites: a worldwide review. Annu Rev Entomol 58:455–474. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153554
Gandhi KJK, Herm DA (2010) Direct and indirect effects of alien insect herbivores on ecological processes and interactions in forests of eastern North America. Biol Invasions 12:389–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-009-9627-9
Gao S, Wang X, Wiemann MC, Brashaw BK, Ross RJ, Wang L (2017) A critical analysis of methods for rapid and nondestructive determination of wood density in standing trees. Ann For Sci 74:27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-017-0623-4
Gray B, Buchter J (1969) Termite eradication in Araucaria plantations in New Guinea. Commonw For Rev 48:201–207
Grube S, Forschler BT (2004) Census of monogyne and polygyne laboratory colonies illuminates dynamics of population growth in Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 97:466–475. https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2004)097%5b0466:COMAPL%5d2.0.CO;2
Guillot FS, Ring DR, Lax AR, Morgan A, Brown K (2010) Area-wide management of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in the New Orleans French Quarter. Sociobiology 55:311–338
Harris WV (1966a) The role of termites in tropical forestry. Insectes Soc 13:255–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02222385
Harris WV (1966b) On the genus Coptotermes in Africa (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Proc Roy Ent Soc Lond B 35:161–171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1966.tb00519.x
Henderson G Forschler BT (1996) Termite bait screening using naturally-infested trees. In: Wildey KB (ed) Proceedings of the second international conference on insect pests in urban environment. BPC Wheaton Ltd., Exeter, pp 449–458
Herms DA, McCullough DG (2014) Emerald ash borer invasion of North America: history, biology, ecology, impacts, and management. Annu Rev Entomol 59:13–30. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051
Hochmair HH, Tonini F, Scheffrahn RH (2013) The role of geographic information systems for analyzing infestations and spread of invasive termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae) in urban south Florida. Fla Entomol 96:746–755. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.096.0307
Howell HN, Gold RE, Glenn GJ (2001) Coptotermes distribution in Texas (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 37:687–697
Hu J, Zhong JH, Guo MF (2007) Alate dispersal distances of the black-winged subterranean termite Odontotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Termitidae) in Southern China. Sociobiology 50:1–8
Hu J, Angeli S, Schuetz S, Luo Y, Hajek AE (2009) Ecology and management of exotic and endemic Asian longhorned beetle Anoplophora glabripennis. Agric For Entomol 11:359–375. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-9563.2009.00443.x
Husseneder C, Simms DM, Delatte JR, Wang C, Grace JK, Vargo EL (2012) Genetic diversity and colony breeding structure in native and introduced ranges of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus. Biol Invasions 4:419–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-011-0087-7
Isik F, Li B (2003) Rapid assessment of wood density of live trees using the Resistograph for selection in tree improvement programs. Can J For Res 33:2426–2435. https://doi.org/10.1139/x03-176
Iwata R, Kodama J (2007) Damage done to trees by termites. Jpn J Environ Entomol Zool 18:55–66 (in Japanese)
Jasmi AH, Ahmad AH (2011) Termite incidence on an Araucaria plantation forest in Teluk Bahang, Penang. Insects 2:469–474. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects2040469
Jenkins TM, Dean RE, Forschler BT (2002) DNA technology, interstate commerce, and the likely origin of Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) infestation in Atlanta, Georgia. J Econ Entomol 95:381–389. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-95.2.381
Johnstone D, Moore G, Tausz M, Nicolas M (2013) The measurement of plant vitality in landscape trees. Arboric J 35:18–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2013.783746
King EG, Spink WT (1969) Foraging galleries of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, in Louisiana. Ann Entomol Soc Am 62:536–542. https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/62.3.536
La Fage JP (1987) Practical consideration of the Formosan subterranean termite in Louisiana: a 30-year-old problem. In: Tamashiro M, Su NY (eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Proceedings of the international symposium on the Formosan subterranean termite. University of Hawaii, Research Extension Series 083, pp 37–42
Lai PY, Tamashiro M, Yates JR, Su NY, Fujii JK, Ebesu RH (1983) Living plants in Hawaii attacked by Coptotermes formosanus. Proc Hawaii Entomol Soc 24:283–286. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/11161. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
Lax AR, Osbrink WLA (2003) United states department of agricutlure–agricultural research service research on targeted management of the Formosan subterranean termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Pest Manag Sci 59:788–800. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.721
Lax AR, Wiltz BA (2010) Swarming of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Southern Mississippi. Midsouth Entomologist 3:18–25. http://midsouthentomologist.org.msstate.edu/Volume3/Vol3_1_html_files/Vol3_1_003.html. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
Lee KC, Sun JZ, Zhu YC, Mallette EJ (2009) A case study of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) transported with a non-cellulosic commercial carrier in south Mississippi. Sociobiology 53:619–630
Lee TRC, Cameron SL, Evans TA, Ho SYW, Lo N (2015) The origins and radiation of Australian Coptotermes termites: from rainforest to desert dwellers. Mol Phylogenet Evol 82:234–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2014.09.026
Lee TRC, Evans TA, Cameron SL, Hochuli DF, Ho SYW, Lo N (2017) Ecological diversification of the Australian Coptotermes termites and the evolution of mound building. J Biogeogr 44:1405–1417. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12878
Little NS, Blount NA, Caprio MA, Riggins JJ (2014) Survey of subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) utilization of temperate forests. Sociobiology 62:198–206. https://doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v61i2.198-206
Lovett GM, Canham CD, Arthur RA, Weathers KC, Fitzhugh RD (2006) Forest ecosystem responses to exotic pests and pathogens in eastern North America. BioScience 56:395–405
Mankin RW, Osbrink WL, Oi Anderson JB (2002) Acoustic detection of termite infestations in urban trees. J Econ Entomol 95:981–988. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-95.5.981
Mattheck C, Bethge K, Albrecht W (1997) How to read the results of resistograph. Arboric J 21:331–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.1997.9747179
Messenger MT, Mullins AJ (2005) New flight distance recorded for Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Fla Entomol 88:99–100. https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)088%5b0099:NFDRFC%5d2.0.CO;2
Messenger MT, Su N-Y, Scheffrahn RH (2002) Current distribution of the Formosan subterranean termite and other termite species (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae, Kalotermitidae) in Louisiana. Fla Entomol 85:580–587. https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2002)085%5b0580:CDOTFS%5d2.0.CO;2
Messenger MT, Su NY, Husseneder C, Grace JK (2005) Elimination and reinvasion studies with Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Louisiana. J Econ Entomol 98:916–929. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-98.3.916
Moore W (1999) The combined use of the resistograph and the shigometer for the accurate mapping and diagnosis of the internal condition of woody support organs of trees. Arboric J 23:273–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.1999.9747245
Morales-Ramos JA, Rojas MG (2001) Nutritional ecology of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): feeding response to commercial wood species. J Econ Entomol 94:516–523. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-96.1.106
Mori H (1987) The Formosan subterranean termite in Japan: its distribution, damage, and current and potential control measures. In: Tamashiro M, Su NY (eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Proceedings of the international symposium on the Formosan subterranean termite. University of Hawaii, Research Extension Series 083, pp 23–26
Muirhead-Thompson RC (1991) Trap responses of flying insects: the influence of trap design on capture. Academic Press, London
Mullins AJ, Messenger MT, Hochmair HH, Tonini F, Su NY, Riegel C (2015) Dispersal flights of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J Econ Entomol 108:707–719. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tov022
Orwig DA, Foster DR, Mausel DL (2002) Landscape patterns of hemlock decline in New England due to the introduced hemlock woolly adelgid. J Biogeogr 29:1475–1487. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2002.00765.x
Osbrink WL, Lax AR (2002) Termite gallery characterization in living trees using digital resistograph technology. In: Robinson WH (ed) Proceedings of 4th international conference on urban pests. Charleston, USA, pp 251–258
Osbrink WLA, Lax AR (2003) Effect of imidacloprid tree treatments on the occurrence of Formosan subterranean termites, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), in independent monitors. J Econ Entomol 96:117–125. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493-96.1.117
Osbrink WL, Woodson WD, Lax AR (1999) Populations of Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), established in living urban trees in New Orleans, Louisiana. In: Robinson WH, Rettich F, Rambo GW (eds) Proceedings of 3rd international conference on urban pests. Graficke Zavody Hronov, Czech Republic, pp 341–345
Pimentel D, Zuniga R, Morrison D (2005) Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol Econ 52:273–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002
Ridley HN (1909) Tree attacked by Termes gestroi. Agric Bull Straits Fed Malay States 8:563–564. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/148273#page/691/mode/1up. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
Rinn F, Schweingruber FH, Schar E (1996) Resistograph and x-ray density charts of wood comparative evaluations of drill resistance profiles and x-ray density charts of different wood species. Holzforschung 50:303–311
Roy-Noël J (1966) Description de l’imago et de quelques formes jeunes de néoténiques chez Coptotermes intermedius Silvestri (Isoptère). Lnsectes Soc 13:217–224
Scheffrahn RH, Su N-Y (2005) Distribution of the termite genus Coptotermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Florida. Fla Entomol 88:201–203. https://doi.org/10.1653/0015-4040(2005)088%5b0201:DOTTGC%5d2.0.CO;2
Shelton TG, Hu XP, Appel AG, Wagner TL (2006) Flight speed of tethered Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) alates. J Insect Behav 19:115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10905-005-9012-1
Speight MR, Wylie FR (2001) Insect pests in tropical forestry. CABi Publishing, Oxford
Sun J-Z, Lockwood ME, Etheridge JL, Carroll J, Hollomon CZ, Coker CEH, Knight PR (2007) Distribution of Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Mississippi. J Econ Entomol 100:1400–1408. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-0493(2007)100%5b1400:DOFSTI%5d2.0.CO;2
Suppo C, Robinet C, Perdereau E, Andrieu D, Bagnères AG (2018) Potential spread of the invasive North American termite, Reticulitermes flavipes, and the impact of climate warming. Biol Invasions 20:905–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1581-3
Tascioglu C, Yoshimura T, Tsunoda K (2013) Biological performance of wood–plastic composites containing zinc borate: laboratory and 3-year field test results. Compos B Eng 51:185–190
Tho YP (1982) Termites of peninsula Malaysia. Malayan forest records no. 36. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur
Thorne BL, Breisch NL, Haverty MI (2002) Longevity of kings and queens and first time of production of fertile progeny in dampwood termite (Isoptera; Termopsidae; Zootermopsis) colonies with different reproductive structures. J Anim Ecol 71:1030–1041. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.2002.00666.x
Tobin PC, Bai BB, Eggen DA, Leonard DS (2012) The ecology, geopolitics, and economics of managing Lymantria dispar in the United States. Int J Pest Manag 58:195–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670874.2011.647836
Tonini F, Hochmair HH, Scheffrahn RH, Deangelis DL (2013) Simulating the spread of an invasive termite in an urban environment using a stochastic individual-based model. Environ Entomol 42:412–423. https://doi.org/10.1603/EN12325
Wang C, Powell JE, Liu Y (2002) A literature review of the biology and ecology of Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in China. Sociobiology 40:343–364
Werner PA, Prior LD (2007) Tree-piping termites and growth and survival of host trees in savanna woodland of north Australia. J Trop Ecol 23:611–622. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467407004476
Werner PA, Prior LD, Forner J (2008) Growth and survival of termite-piped Eucalyptus tetrodonta and E. miniata in northern Australia: Implications for harvest of trees for didgeridoos. Forest Ecol Manag 256:328–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.04.027
Yasuda I, Nakasone Y, Kinjo K, Yaga S (2000) Morphology and distribution of termites in Ryukyu islands and north and south Daito islands. Jpn J Entomol (New Series) 3:139–156
Yela JL, Holyoak M (1997) Effects of moonlight and meteorological factors on light and bait trap catches of noctuid moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Environ Entomol 26:1283–1290. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/26.6.1283
Zhung J, Liu L (2003) Experience with Coptotermes formosanus in China (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 41:17–26
Zorzenon FJ, Campos AEC (2015) Subterranean termites in urban forestry: tree preference and management. Neotrop Entomol 44:180–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13744-014-0269-y
Acknowledgements
We thank Julie Arnold of the Santee Experimental Forest, US Forest Service, Ken Brown, Edward Freytag, Timmy Madere and Eric Guidry of the New Orleans Mosquito, Termite and Rodent Control Board, Pat Zungoli of Clemson University, Joe Lockwood of Trimex Pest Control and Bert Snyder of Palmetto Pest Control for their logistical support, tree identification and supplying local knowledge about C. formosanus distribution. We thank the Australian Academy of Science, International Sciences Linkages Scheme, and the USDA Forest Service, Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center for support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Evans, T.A., Forschler, B.T. & Trettin, C.C. Not just urban: The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, is invading forests in the Southeastern USA. Biol Invasions 21, 1283–1294 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-018-1899-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-018-1899-5