Abstract
Disgust has been shown to perform a “disease-avoidance” function in contamination fears. However, no studies have examined the relevance of disgust to obsessive–compulsive (OC) concerns about sexual orientation (e.g., fear of one’s sexual orientation transforming against one’s will, and compulsive avoidance of same-sex and/or gay or lesbian individuals to prevent that from happening). Therefore, we investigated whether the specific domain of contamination-based disgust (i.e., evoked by the perceived threat of transmission of essences between individuals) predicted OC concerns about sexual orientation, and whether this effect was moderated/amplified by obsessive beliefs, in evaluation of a “sexual orientation transformation-avoidance” function. We recruited 283 self-identified heterosexual college students (152 females, 131 males; mean age = 20.88 years, SD = 3.19) who completed three measures assessing disgust, obsessive beliefs, and OC concerns about sexual orientation. Results showed that contamination-based disgust (β = .17), responsibility/threat overestimation beliefs (β = .15), and their interaction (β = .17) each uniquely predicted OC concerns about sexual orientation, ts = 2.22, 2.50, and 2.90, ps < .05. Post hoc probing indicated that high contamination-based disgust accompanied by strong responsibility/threat overestimation beliefs predicted more severe OC concerns about sexual orientation, β = .48, t = 3.24, p < .001. The present study, therefore, provided preliminary evidence for a “sexual orientation transformation-avoidance” process underlying OC concerns about sexual orientation in heterosexual college students, which is facilitated by contamination-based disgust, and exacerbated by responsibility/threat overestimation beliefs. Treatment for OC concerns about sexual orientation should target such beliefs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, T. G., & Lohr, J. M. (2012). Disgust mediates the relation between attentional shifting and contamination aversion. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43, 975–980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.03.002.
Armstrong, T., Olatunji, B. O., Sarawgi, S., & Simmons, C. (2010). Orienting and maintenance of gaze in contamination fear: Biases for disgust and fear cues. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 402–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.01.002.
Athey, A. J., Elias, J. A., Crosby, J. M., Jenike, M. A., Pope, H. G., Jr., Hudson, J. I., et al. (2015). Reduced disgust propensity is associated with improvement in contamination/washing symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders, 4, 20–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2014.11.001.
Berle, D., & Phillips, E. S. (2006). Disgust and obsessive-compulsive disorder: An update. Psychiatry, 69, 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2006.69.3.228.
Broderick, J., Grisham, J. R., & Weidemann, G. (2013). Disgust and fear responding in contamination-based obsessive–compulsive disorder during pictorial exposure. Behavior Therapy, 44, 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2012.05.005.
Calkins, A. W., Berman, N. C., & Wilhelm, S. (2013). Recent advances in research on cognition and emotion in OCD: A review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15, 357–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0357-4.
Cisler, J. M., Brady, R. E., Olatunji, B. O., & Lohr, J. M. (2010). Disgust and obsessive beliefs in contamination-related OCD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 439–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9253-y.
Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., & Lohr, J. M. (2009). Disgust, fear, and the anxiety disorders: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.09.007.
Cougle, J. R., Lee, H.-J., Horowitz, J. D., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., & Telch, M. J. (2008). An exploration of the relationship between mental pollution and OCD symptoms. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 340–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.08.007.
David, B., Olatunji, B. O., Armstrong, T., Ciesielski, B. G., Bondy, C. L., & Broman-Fulks, J. (2009). Incremental specificity of disgust sensitivity in the prediction of obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms: Cross-sectional and prospective approaches. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 40, 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.07.004.
Deacon, B., & Olatunji, B. O. (2007). Specificity of disgust sensitivity in the prediction of behavioral avoidance in contamination fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2110–2120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.03.008.
Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., et al. (2002). The Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory: Development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14, 485–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.14.4.485.
Goldberg, R. L. (1984). Heterosexual panic. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 44, 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01248300.
Gordon, W. M. (2002). Sexual obsessions and OCD. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 17, 343–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/1468199021000017191.
Hershfield, J., & Corboy, T. (2013). The mindfulness workbook for OCD: A guide to overcoming obsessions and compulsions using mindfulness and cognitive behavioral therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/27.1.87.
Inchausti, F., Delgado, A. R., & Prieto, G. (2015). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and its relationship with disgust vulnerability and conscientiousness. Psicothema, 27, 254–260. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.7.
Inozu, M., Ulukut, F. O., Ergun, G., & Alcolado, G. M. (2014). The mediating role of disgust sensitivity and thought-action fusion between religiosity and obsessive compulsive symptoms. International Journal of Psychology, 49, 334–341. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12041.
Jhung, K., Namkoong, K., Kang, J. I., Ha, R. Y., An, S. K., Kim, C.-H., et al. (2010). Perception bias of disgust in ambiguous facial expressions in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 178, 126–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.11.023.
Jónsson, H., Hougaard, E., & Bennedsen, B. E. (2011). Dysfunctional beliefs in group and individual cognitive behavioral therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 483–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.12.001.
Lee, M., Shafran, R., Burgess, C., Carpenter, J., Millard, E., & Thorpe, S. (2013). The induction of mental and contact contamination. Clinical Psychologist, 17, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12003.
Ludvik, D., Boschen, M. J., & Neumann, D. L. (2015). Effective behavioural strategies for reducing disgust in contamination-related OCD: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 42, 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.07.001.
Mason, E. C., & Richardson, R. (2012). Treating disgust in anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 180–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2012.01282.x.
Matchett, G., & Davey, G. C. (1991). A test of a disease-avoidance model of animal phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 91–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(09)80011-9.
McKay, D. (2006). Treating disgust reactions in contamination based obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 37, 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2005.09.005.
Melli, G., Bulli, F., Carraresi, C., & Stopani, E. (2014). Disgust propensity and contamination-related OCD symptoms: The mediating role of mental contamination. Journal of Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders, 3, 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2014.01.002.
Melli, G., Moulding, R., Gelli, S., Chiorri, S., & Pinto, A. (2016). Assessing sexual orientation-related obsessions and compulsions in Italian heterosexual individuals: Development and validation of the Sexual Orientation Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (SO-OCS). Behavior Therapy, 47, 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.03.004.
Oaten, M. J., Stevenson, R. J., & Case, T. I. (2009). Disgust as a disease-avoidance mechanism. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 303–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014823.
Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2005). Psychometric validation of the Obsessive Belief Questionnaire and Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory: Part 2: Factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1527–1542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.07.010.
Olatunji, B. O., Ebesutani, C., Haidt, J., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2014). Specificity of disgust domains in the prediction of contamination anxiety and avoidance: A multimodal examination. Behavior Therapy, 45, 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2014.02.006.
Olatunji, B. O., Haidt, J., McKay, D., & David, B. (2008). Core, animal reminder, and contamination disgust: Three kinds of disgust with distinct personality, behavioral, physiological, and clinical correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1243–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.009.
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Tolin, D. F. (2007a). Multimodal assessment of disgust in contamination-related obsessive–compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 263–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.004.
Olatunji, B. O., Moretz, M. W., McKay, D., Bjorklund, F., de Jong, P. J., Haidt, J., et al. (2009a). Confirming the three-factor structure of the Disgust Scale-Revised in eight countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 234–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022108328918.
Olatunji, B. O., Moretz, M. W., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., McKay, D., McGrath, P. B., & Ciesielski, B. G. (2010). Disgust vulnerability and symptoms of contamination-based OCD: Descriptive tests of incremental specificity. Behavior Therapy, 41, 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.11.005.
Olatunji, B. O., Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., & de Jong, P. J. (2004). Disgust domains in the prediction of contamination fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00102-5.
Olatunji, B. O., Tart, C. D., Ciesielski, B. G., McGrath, P. B., & Smits, J. A. J. (2011). Specificity of disgust vulnerability in the distinction and treatment of OCD. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1236–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.018.
Olatunji, B. O., Williams, N. L., Tolin, D. F., Abramowitz, J. S., Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., & Elwood, L. S. (2007b). The Disgust Scale: Item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement. Psychological Assessment, 19, 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.281.
Olatunji, B. O., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Willems, J., Lohr, J. M., & Armstrong, T. (2009b). Differential habituation of fear and disgust during repeated exposure to threat-relevant stimuli in contamination-based OCD: An analogue study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 118–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.04.006.
Ponniah, K., Magiati, I., & Hollon, S. D. (2013). An update on the efficacy of psychological therapies in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 2, 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.02.005.
Rozin, P., Haidt, J., & McCauley, C. R. (2000). Disgust. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 637–653). New York: Guilford Press.
Starcevic, V., Berle, D., Brakoulias, V., Sammut, P., Moses, K., Milicevic, D., et al. (2011). The nature and correlates of avoidance in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 871–879. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048674.2011.607632.
Storch, E. A., Rasmussen, S. A., Price, L. H., Larson, M. J., Murphy, T. K., & Goodman, W. K. (2010). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Yale-Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale—second edition. Psychological Assessment, 22, 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018492.
Teachman, B. A. (2006). Pathological disgust: In the thoughts, not the eye, of the beholder. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 19, 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800601055923.
van den Hout, M. A., Engelhard, I. M., Toffolo, M. B. J., & van Uijen, S. L. (2011). Exposure plus response prevention versus exposure plus safety behaviours in reducing feelings of contamination, fear, danger and disgust. An extended replication of Rachman, Shafran, Radomsky & Zysk (2011). Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42, 364–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.009.
van Overveld, M., de Jong, P. F., Peters, M. L., & Schouten, E. (2011). The Disgust Scale-R: A valid and reliable index to investigate separate disgust domains? Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 325–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.023.
Wilhelm, S., Berman, N. C., Keshaviah, A., Schwartz, R. A., & Steketee, G. (2015). Mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder: Role of maladaptive beliefs and schemas. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 65, 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.12.006.
Williams, M. T. (2008). Homosexuality anxiety: A misunderstood form of OCD. In L. V. Sebeki (Ed.), Leading-edge health education issues (pp. 195–205). Happauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Williams, M. T., Ching, T. H. W., Tellawi, G., Siev, J., Dowell, J., Schlaudt, V., et al. (2017). Assessing sexual orientation symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Development and validation of the Sexual Orientation Obsessions and Reactions Test (SORT). Behavior Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.12.005.
Williams, M. T., Crozier, M., & Powers, M. B. (2011). Treatment of sexual orientation obsessions in obsessive-compulsive disorder using exposure and ritual prevention. Clinical Case Studies, 10, 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650110393732.
Williams, M. T., & Farris, S. G. (2011). Sexual orientation obsessions in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Prevalence and correlates. Psychiatry Research, 187, 156–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.019.
Williams, A. D., & Grisha, J. R. (2013). Cognitive bias modification (CBM) of obsessive compulsive beliefs. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-256.
Williams, M. T., Slimowicz, J., Tellawi, G., & Wetterneck, C. (2014). Sexual orientation symptoms in obsessive compulsive disorder: Assessment and treatment with cognitive behavioral therapy. Directions in Psychiatry, 34, 37–50.
Williams, M. T., Tellawi, G., Davis, D. M., & Slimowicz, J. (2015a). Assessment and treatment of sexual orientation obsessions in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Australian Clinical Psychologist, 1, 12–18.
Williams, M. T., Wetterneck, C., Tellawi, G., & Duque, G. (2015b). Domains of distress among people with sexual orientation obsessions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 783–789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0421-0.
Woody, S. R., & Tolin, D. F. (2002). The relationship between disgust sensitivity and avoidant behavior: Studies of clinical and nonclinical samples. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 543–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00173-1.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Darlene Davis for development of the data collection instruments and assistance in the collection of data during the early stages of this project. The authors also thank Ghazel Tellawi, Joseph Slimowicz, Melissa Ellsworth, and Victoria Schlaudt for help with recruitment of participants. We would also like to thank Jessica Dowell for help with data entry and assisting with recruitment of participants.
Funding
This research was completely self-funded.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors conceptualized the research. The first author conducted the literature search, analyzed the data, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
This research was compliant with the ethical standards set by the institutional review board in which it was housed.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ching, T.H.W., Williams, M.T., Siev, J. et al. Responsibility/Threat Overestimation Moderates the Relationship Between Contamination-Based Disgust and Obsessive–Compulsive Concerns About Sexual Orientation. Arch Sex Behav 47, 1109–1117 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1165-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1165-z