Abstract
Sexual desire is typically measured as a unitary erotic phenomenon and is often assumed by biological and biomedical researchers, as well as the lay public, to be directly connected to physiological parameters like testosterone (T). In the present study, we empirically examined how conceptualizing sexual desire as multifaceted might clarify associations with T and contextual variables. To do so, we used the Sexual Desire Questionnaire (DESQ), which assesses multifaceted dyadic sexual desire, to explore how contextual variables such as social location, relationship status, and desire target (e.g., partner vs. stranger) might be meaningful for reports of sexual desire and associated hormonal correlations. We focused on women (N = 198), because sexual desire and testosterone are generally unlinked in healthy men. Participants imagined a partner or stranger while answering the 65 DESQ items and provided a saliva sample for hormone assay. Analyses showed that the DESQ factored differently for the current sample than in previous research, highlighting how sexual desire can be constructed differently across different populations. We also found that, for the Intimacy, Eroticism, and Partner Focus factors, mean scores were higher when the desire target was a partner relative to a stranger for participants in a relationship, but equally high between partner versus stranger target for single participants. DESQ items resolved into meaningful hormonal desire components, such that high endorsement of Fantasy Experience was linked to higher T, and higher cortisol was linked with lower endorsement of the Intimacy factor. We argue that conceptualizing desire as multifaceted and contextualized when assessing hormonal links—or questions in general about desire—can clarify some of its complexities and lead to new research avenues.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Armstrong, E. A., England, P., & Fogarty, C. K. (2009). Orgasm in college hookups and relationships. In B. J. Risman (Ed.), Families as they really are (pp. 362–377). New York, NY: Norton.
Bancroft, J., & Graham, C. A. (2011). The varied nature of women’s sexuality: Unresolved issues and a theoretical approach. Hormones and Behavior, 59, 717–729.
Basson, R. (2000). The female sexual response: A different model. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 26(1), 51–65.
Basson, R. (2001). Using a different model for female sexual response to address women’s problematic low sexual desire. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 27(5), 395–403.
Basson, R. (2002). Women’s sexual desire—Disordered or misunderstood? Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 28(1), 17–28.
Bowleg, L. (2008). When Black + lesbian + woman ≠ Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 312–325.
Brown, W. A., Monti, P. M., & Corriveau, D. P. (1978). Serum testosterone and sexual activity and interest in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 7, 97–103.
Chadwick, S. B., Burke, S. M., Goldey, K. L., Bell, S. N., & van Anders, S. M. (2017). Sexual desire in sexual minority and majority women and men: The multifaceted Sexual Desire Questionnaire. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0895-z.
Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785–810.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170–180.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 139–167.
Dawson, S. J., & Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specificity of solitary and dyadic sexual desire among gynephilic and androphilic women and men. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11(4), 980–994.
Diamond, L. M. (2003). What does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire. Psychological Review, 110(1), 173–192.
Diamond, L. M., & Wallen, K. (2011). Sexual minority women’s sexual motivation around the time of ovulation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 237–246.
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 355–391.
Edelstein, R. S., van Anders, S. M., Chopik, W. J., Goldey, K. L., & Wardecker, B. M. (2014). Dyadic associations between testosterone and relationship quality in couples. Hormones and Behavior, 65(4), 401–407.
Einstein, G. (2012). Situated neuroscience: Exploring a biology of diversity. In R. Bluhm, H. Maibom, & A. J. Jacobson (Eds.), Neurofeminism: Issues at the intersection of feminist theory and cognitive science (pp. 145–174). London: Palgrave McMillan.
Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155–170.
Goldey, K. L., Posh, A. R., Bell, S. N., & van Anders, S. M. (2016). Defining pleasure: A focus group study of solitary and partnered sexual pleasure in queer and heterosexual women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(8), 2137–2154.
Goldey, K. L., & van Anders, S. M. (2011). Sexy thoughts: Effects of sexual cognitions on testosterone, cortisol, and arousal in women. Hormones and Behavior, 59, 754–764.
Goldey, K. L., & van Anders, S. M. (2012). Sexual arousal and desire: Interrelations and responses to three modalities of sexual stimuli. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 9(9), 2315–2329.
Goldhammer, D. L., & McCabe, M. P. (2011). A qualitative exploration of the meaning and experience of sexual desire among partnered women. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 20, 19–29.
Granger, D. A., Shirtcliff, E. A., Booth, A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Schwartz, E. B. (2004). The “trouble” with salivary testosterone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1229–1240.
Helmreich, R. L., Spence, J. T., & Wilhelm, J. A. (1981). A psychometric analysis of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Sex Roles, 7, 1097–1108.
Herbenick, D., Mullinax, M., & Mark, K. (2014). Sexual desire discrepancy as a feature, not a bug, of long-term relationships: Women’s self-reported strategies for modulating sexual desire. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11(9), 2196–2206.
Khan-Dawood, F. S., Choe, J. K., & Dawood, M. Y. (1984). Salivary and plasma bound and “free” testosterone in men and women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 148, 441–445.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1999). Stress, personal relationships, and immune function: Health implications. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 13, 61–72.
King, J. A., Rosal, M. C., Ma, Y., & Reed, G. W. (2005). Association of stress, hostility, and plasma testosterone levels. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 26, 355–360.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
Kirschbaum, C., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1994). Salivary cortisol in psychoneuroendocrine research: Recent developments and applications. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 19, 313–333.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Levant, R. F., Rankin, T. J., Hall, R. J., Smalley, K. B., & Williams, C. M. (2012). Measurement of nontraditional sexuality in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 283–295.
Magrini, G., Chiodoni, G., Rey, F., & Felber, J. P. (1986). Further evidence for the usefulness of the salivary testosterone radioimmunoassay in the assessment of androgenicity in man in basal and stimulated conditions. Hormone Research, 23, 65–73.
Mah, K., & Binik, Y. M. (2002). Do all orgasms feel alike? Evaluating a two-dimensional model of the orgasm experience across gender and sexual context. Journal of Sex Research, 39(2), 104–113.
Mark, K. P., Fortenberry, J. D., Herbenick, D., Sanders, S., & Reece, M. (2014). The object of sexual desire: Examining the “what” in “what do you desire?”. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11, 2709–2719.
Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Boston: Little, Brown.
McCall, K., & Meston, C. (2006). Cues resulting in desire for sexual activity in women. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 3(5), 838–852.
McCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4, 84–99.
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2010). What’s in a name? Integrating homeostasis, allostasis and stress. Hormones and Behavior, 57, 105–111.
Meana, M. (2010). Elucidating women’s (hetero)sexual desire: Definitional challenges and content expansion. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 104–122.
Murray, S. H., Sutherland, O., & Milhausen, R. R. (2012). Young women’s descriptions of sexual desire in long-term relationships. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 27(1), 3–16.
Norton, R. (1983). Measuring marital quality: A critical look at the dependent variable. Journal of Marriage and Family, 45, 141–151.
Oliver, M. B., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 29–51.
Peplau, L. A., & Garnets, L. D. (2000). A new paradigm for understanding women’s sexuality and sexual orientation. Journal of Social Issues, 56(2), 330–350.
Reiss, I. L. (1981). Some observations on ideology and sexuality in America. Journal of Marriage and Family, 43, 271–283.
Roney, J. R., Lukaszewski, A. W., & Simmons, Z. L. (2007). Rapid endocrine responses of young men to social interactions with young women. Hormones and Behavior, 52(3), 326–333.
Rosen, C., Brown, J., Heiman, S., Leiblum, C., Meston, R., Shabsigh, D., … D’Agostino, R. (2000). The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): A multidimensional self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 26(2), 191–208.
Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2007). The interpersonal power of feminism: Is feminism good for romantic relationships? Sex Roles, 57, 787–799.
Schreiner-Engel, P., Schiavi, R. C., White, D., & Ghizzani, A. (1989). Low sexual desire in women: The role of reproductive hormones. Hormones and Behavior, 23, 221–234.
Schultheiss, O. C., & Rohde, W. (2002). Implicit power motivation predicts men's testosterone changes and implicit learning in a contest situation. Hormones and Behavior, 41(2), 195–202.
Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 301–311.
Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., & Likos, A. (2002). Gender differences in the validity of testosterone measured in saliva by immunoassay. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 62–69.
Spector, I. P., Carey, M. P., & Steinberg, L. (1996). The Sexual Desire Inventory: Development, factor structure, and evidence of reliability. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 22(3), 175–190.
Swinkels, L. M., Meulenberg, P. M., Ross, H. A., & Benraad, T. J. (1988). Salivary and plasma free testosterone and androstenedione levels in women using oral contraceptives containing desogestrel or levonorgestrel. Annals of Clinical Biochemistry, 25, 354–359.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Tiefer, L. (2004). Historical, scientific, clinical, and feminist criticisms of “the human sexual response cycle” model. In Sex is not a natural act and other essays (2nd ed., pp. 41–61). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
van Anders, S. M. (2012a). From one bioscientist to another: Guidelines for researching and writing about bisexuality for the lab and biosciences. Journal of Bisexuality, 12, 393–403.
van Anders, S. M. (2012b). Testosterone and sexual desire in healthy women and men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1471–1484.
van Anders, S. M. (2013). Beyond masculinity: Testosterone, gender/sex, and human social behavior in a comparative context. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 34, 198–210.
van Anders, S. M. (2015). Beyond sexual orientation: Integrating gender/sex and diverse sexualities via sexual configurations theory. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(5), 1177–1213.
van Anders, S. M., & Dunn, E. J. (2009). Are gonadal steroids linked with orgasm perceptions and sexual assertiveness in women and men? Hormones and Behavior, 56, 206–213.
van Anders, S. M., Goldey, K. L., & Bell, S. N. (2014). Measurement of testosterone in human sexuality research: Methodological considerations. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 231–250.
van Anders, S. M., Goldey, K. L., & Kuo, P. X. (2011). The steroid/peptide theory of social bonds: Integrating testosterone and peptide responses for classifying social behavioral contexts. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 1265–1275.
van Anders, S. M., Hamilton, L. D., Schmidt, N., & Watson, N. V. (2007a). Associations between testosterone secretion and sexual activity in women. Hormones and Behavior, 51, 477–482.
van Anders, S. M., Hamilton, L. D., & Watson, N. V. (2007b). Multiple partners are associated with higher testosterone in North American men and women. Hormones and Behavior, 51, 454–459.
van Anders, S. M., & Hampson, E. (2005). Waist-to-hip ratio is positively associated with bioavailable testosterone but negatively associated with sexual desire in healthy premenopausal women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 246–250.
van Anders, S. M., Steiger, J., & Goldey, K. L. (2015). Effects of gendered behavior on testosterone in women and men. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(45), 13805–13810.
Wang, C., Plymate, S., Nieschlag, E., & Paulsen, C. A. (1981). Salivary testosterone in men: Further evidence of a direct correlation with free serum testosterone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 53, 1021–1024.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
Wiederman, M. (2000). Women’s body image self-consciousness during physical intimacy with a partner. Journal of Sex Research, 37, 60–68.
Wilson, G. D. (1997). Gender differences in sexual fantasy: An evolutionary analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 27–31.
Wood, W., Kressel, L., Joshi, P. D., & Louie, B. (2014). Meta-analysis of menstrual cycle effects on women’s mate preferences. Emotion Review, 6(3), 229–249.
Woods, N., Mitchell, E., & Julio, K. (2010). Sexual desire during the menopausal transition and early postmenopause: Observations from the Seattle Midlife Women’s Health Study. Journal of Women’s Health, 19, 209–218.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge H. Debassai, E. Dibble, W. Frey, J. Godlew, R. Grossman, G. Jainagaraj, M. Manley, T. Moberg, L. Nesbitt, and A. Posh for help with data collection. Katherine L. Goldey, Ph.D., is now affiliated with the Department of Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience at St. Edward’s University in Austin, TX.
Funding
This study was funded by faculty discretionary funds.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human Participants
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Appendix: Sexual Desire Questionnaire (DESQ)
Appendix: Sexual Desire Questionnaire (DESQ)
Instructions:
Imagine a Partner Desire Target:
For participants in a relationship—[For the following questionnaire, think about a relationship partner].
For single participants—[For the following questionnaire, imagine that you are in a relationship with someone you are close to and find attractive].
Imagine a Stranger Desire Target:
For participants in a relationship—[For the following questionnaire, think about a person you find attractive who is NOT your relationship partner and who you either do not know, or do not know well (you may, for example, think about someone famous or an acquaintance)].
For single participants—[For the following questionnaire, think about a person you find attractive who you either do not know, or do not know well (you may, for example, think about someone famous or an acquaintance)].
For each question, rank your agreement with the following:
When you have experienced sexual desire for this partner, is it generally characterized by a desire to…?
1. Strongly disagree | 2. | 3. | 4. Neither agree nor disagree | 5. | 6. | 7. Strongly agree | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Experience orgasm | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
2. Give your partner physical pleasure | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
3. Feel wanted/desired | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
4. Be touched | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
5. Have a thrill | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
6. Make your partner feel happy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
7. Feel dominant/powerful | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
8. Experience specific sexual activities | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
9. Feel protected | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
10. Try something new | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
11. Experience companionship | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
12. Feel irresistible | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
13. Relieve stress | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
14. Do something exciting | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
15. Express love for your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
16. Surprise your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
17. Be distracted from some other anxiety-provoking issue | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
18. Act out a sexual fantasy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
19. Fall asleep | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
20. Alleviate boredom | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
21. Be dominated | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
22. Please your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
23. Impress your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
24. Feel happy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
25. Make your partner feel emotionally closer to you | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
26. Make your partner feel wanted/desired | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
27. Feel sexually excited or aroused | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
28. Fantasize | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
29. Make your partner feel more secure about your relationship with him/her | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
30. Feel sexually satisfied | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
31. Feel a sense of commitment from your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
32. Be physically close to your partner in a sexual way | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
33. Experience power/control | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
34. End craving | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
35. Reconcile with your partner/end a fight | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
36. Feel sexy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
37. Experience intimacy | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
38. Feel independent and in control of your body | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
39. Show your partner that you care | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
40. Feel cared for | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
41. Be protective | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
42. Touch your partner’s body | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
43. Reproduce | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
44. Feel special | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
45. View erotic films or read an erotic story | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
46. Feel in control of your relationship | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
47. Initiate or maintain a romantic relationship | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
48. Feel loved | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
49. Experience romance | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
50. Feel emotionally closer to your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
51. Make your partner feel that you are committed | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
52. Cuddle with your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
53. See your partner naked | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
54. Boost your self-esteem or feel good about yourself | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
55. Feel more secure about your relationship with your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
56. Relieve tension/frustration | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
57. Experience desire for its own sake/no goal | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
58. Make your partner feel that you are supportive of him/her | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
59. Make yourself feel good | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
60. Avoid conflict with your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
61. Make your partner feel special | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
62. Feel a sense of support from your partner | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
63. Experience physical pleasure | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
64. Grow closer to your partner or develop a stronger connection with him/her | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
65. Experience relaxation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chadwick, S.B., Burke, S.M., Goldey, K.L. et al. Multifaceted Sexual Desire and Hormonal Associations: Accounting for Social Location, Relationship Status, and Desire Target. Arch Sex Behav 46, 2445–2463 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0959-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0959-8