Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

From Plastic Sheets to Tablet PCs: A Digital Epigraphic Method for Recording Egyptian Rock Art and Inscriptions

  • Original Article
  • Published:
African Archaeological Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Since 2010, the recording of rock art and inscription sites with Yale Egyptology concession areas in Upper Egypt has led to the development of new digital techniques. Those combine easily available technology with archaeological expertise to produce and collate publishable facsimiles within the fieldwork period, while remaining true to the conventions of the finest of earlier epigraphic publications. The ongoing threat to rock art sites and the recent ban of the Ministry of Antiquities on contact copies or direct tracings of petroglyphs brought urgency to effective and efficient means of documenting our archaeological sites. The nature of rock art itself, always unique and heterogeneous at the same time, does not allow technology to replace specialist knowledge: only an effective dialog between humans in the field and new technology has produced results both graphically attractive and practically useful. The present article will discuss the workflow we have developed, including the important role of tablet PCs in avoiding the potential distortion that intermediary copies may create (as well as multiple plastic sheets requiring re-alignment). Using an imaging-based recording technique called Structure from Motion, we are able to generate faithful and detailed three-dimensional models of the rock surface that are used to produce high-resolution ortho-rectified views (orthoimages) of each panel. Working on the orthoimages loaded into the tablet PC and tracing/collating in front of the original rock surface, the epigrapher can annotate, modify, or delete in real- time any information—both graphic and iconographic—pertaining to the petroglyphs. This facilitates the reading of the subject inscribed on the rock surface, even if irregular. It allows for a better control during the recording of inner and outer lines, especially for those areas that are damaged or weathered. Although our methodology was developed on Egyptian case studies, the series of tools and techniques involved are, in our opinion, much more broadly applicable to the wider panorama of African rock art and beyond.

Résumé

Depuis 2010, le relevé des sites d’art rupestre et d’inscriptions des concessions d’égyptologie de l’université de Yale en haute Égypte a donné lieu au développement de nouvelles techniques numériques associant des technologies d’accès facile à l’expertise archéologique pour produire des facsimilés publiables pendant le travail de terrain tout en restant conforme aux standard d’excellence de publications épigraphiques antérieures. La menace permanente pesant sur les sites d’art rupestres et l’interdiction récente des copies par contact et des tracés directs de pétroglyphes par le conseil suprême des antiquités égyptiennes rend urgent le développement de moyens efficaces pour documenter nos sites archéologiques. La nature de l’art rupestre elle-même, à la fois unique et hétérogène, ne permet pas à la technologie de remplacer directement la connaissance de spécialistes, seul un dialogue entre l’homme de terrain et les nouvelles technologies a produit des résultats attrayants et pratiques. Le présent article abordera le processus que nous avons développé, y compris le rôle important des tablettes graphique dans l’évitement des distorsions potentielles résultant de l’utilisation de copies intermédiaires (ainsi que des feuilles de plastique transparentes nécessitant un réalignement). L’utilisation d’une technique d'enregistrement basée sur l'imagerie appelée ‘Structure from Motion’, permet de générer des modèles tridimensionnels fidèles et détaillés de la surface de la roche qui sont utilisés pour produire des vues ortho-rectifiées à haute résolution (orthoimages) de chaque motif. En travaillant sur les orthoimages mémorisées dans une tablette et en les retraçant/réassemblant devant la surface de la roche d'origine, l'épigraphe peut annoter, modifier ou supprimer en temps réel toute information - graphique et iconographique – se rapportant aux pétroglyphes. Ceci, facilite le décryptement du sujet inscrit sur la surface de la roche, même si elle est irrégulière, et permet un meilleur contrôle lors de l'enregistrement des lignes internes et externes, en particulier pour les zones endommagées ou altérées. Bien que cette méthodologie ait été développée dans le contexte d’études égyptologiques, la série d'outils et de techniques impliqués est, à notre avis, plus largement applicable au panorama étendu de l'art rupestre africain et au-delà.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, C., Pinz, A., & Reinbacher, C. (2015). Multi-scale 3D rock-art recording. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2(2–3), 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2015.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bednarik, R. G. (2001). Rock art science: The scientific study of palaeoart, IFRAO 1. Turnhout: Brepols.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bednarik, R. G., Muzzolini, A., Seglie, D., Sher, Y., & Cinsens, M. (2003). Rock art glossary: A multilingual dictionary. Turnhout: Brepols.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, L. (1987). The epigraphic survey: The philosophy of Egyptian epigraphy after sixty years’ practical experience. In J. Assmann, G. Burkard, & V. Davies (Eds.), Problems and priorities in Egyptian archaeology (pp. 43–55). London: KPI Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caminos, R. (1976). The recording of inscriptions and scenes in tombs and temples. In R. Caminos & H. G. Fischer (Eds.), Ancient Egyptian epigraphy and palaeography (pp. 1–25). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caninas, J. C., Pires, H., Henriques, F., & Chambino, M. (2016). Rock art in Portugal’s border area. Rock Art Research: The Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA), 33(1), 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassen, S., & Robin, G. (2010). Recording art on Neolithic stelae and passage tombs from digital photographs. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 17(1), 1–14 Available on https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-009-9075-y. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, H., & Fryer, J. G. (2005). Recording aboriginal rock art using cheap digital cameras and digital photogrammetry. Proceedings of CIPA XX International Symposium, International Cooperation to save the World’s Cultural Heritage (26 September – 1 October 2005, Torino, Italy), 1–7. Available on https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/2240 (January 6, 2018).

  • Chandler, J. H., Bryan, P., & Fryer, J. G. (2007). The development and application of a simple methodology for recording rock art using consumer grade digital cameras. The Photogrammetric Record, 22(117), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9730.2007.00414.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chippindale, C. (2004). From millimeter up to kilometer: A framework of space and of scale for reporting and studying rock-art in its landscape. In C. Chippindale & G. Nash (Eds.), The figured landscapes of rock-art: Looking at pictures in place (pp. 102–117). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curci, A., Urcia, A., Lippiello, L., & Gatto, M. C. (2012). Using digital technologies to document rock art in the Aswan-Kom Ombo region (Egypt). Sahara Journal - Prehistory and History of the Sahara, 23, 75–86 Available on https://www.academia.edu/5277741. Accessed 15 Feb 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darnell, J. C. (2002). Theban Desert Road Survey in the Egyptian Western Desert I: Gebel Tjauti rock inscriptions 1–45 and Wadi el-Hol rock inscriptions 1–45, OIP 119. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Debevec, P. E., Camillo, J. T., & Malik, J. (1996). Modeling and rendering architecture from photographs: A hybrid geometry- and image-based approach. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH 96), Annual Conference Series, “Association for Computing Machinery”, ACM SIGGRAPH, New York, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1145/237170.237191.

  • Defrasne, C. (2014). Digital image enhancement for recording rupestrian engravings: Applications to an alpine rock shelter. Journal of Archaeological Science, 50, 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Der Manuelian, P. (1998). Digital epigraphy: An approach to streamlining Egyptological epigraphic method. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 35, 97–113. https://doi.org/10.2307/40000464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Díaz-Guardamino, M., García Sanjuán, L., Wheatley, D., & Rodríguez Zamora, V. (2015). RTI and the study of engraved rock art: A re-examination of the Iberian south-western stelae of Setefilla and Almadén de la Plata 2 (Seville, Spain). Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2(2–3), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2015.07.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domingo, I., Villaverde, V., López-Montalvo, E., Lerma, J. L., & Cabrelles, M. (2013). Latest developments in rock art recording: Towards an integral documentation of Levantine rock art sites combining 2D and 3D recording techniques. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(4), 1879–1889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.11.024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraile, F., Garcia, L., & Klink, A. (2016). 3D documentation and use of DStretch for two new sites with post-Palaeolithic rock art in Sierra Morena, Spain. Rock Art Research: The Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA), 33(2), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez-Aguilera, D., Rodriguez-Gonzalvez, P., & Mancera-Taboada, J. (2011). Application of non-destructive techniques to the recording and modelling of Palaeolithic rock art. InTech - Laser Scanning, Theory and Applications (pp. 305–326). Available on https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267736818. Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

  • Hameeuw, H., Devillers, A., & Claes, W. (2014). Relighting Egyptian rock art: Rapid, accurate HG imaging of prehistoric petroglyphs, Royal Academy of Overseas Sciences. Proceedings of Young Researchers Overseas’ Day Conference (Brussels, 14 December 2014), “Young Researchers Overseas’ Day” (16.12.2014), 1–11. Available on https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/538100. Accessed 6 Jan 2018.

  • Hernandez, J. F., Aguilera, D. G., Gonzálvez, P. R., & Taboada, J. M. (2015). Image-based modelling from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry: An effective, low-cost tool for archaeological applications. Archaeometry, 57, 128–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12078.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Quellec, J. L., Duquesnoy, F., & Defrasne, C. (2015). Digital image enhancement with DStretch®: Is complexity always necessary for efficiency? Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2(2–3), 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2015.01.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leisen, H., Krause, S., Riemer, H., Seidel, J., & Büttner, E. (2013). New and integral approaches to rock art recording as means of analysis and preservation. In R. Kuper (Ed.), Wadi Sura—the Cave of Beasts (pp. 42–49). Köln: Heinrich-Barth Institut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippiello, L. (2012). Landscapes of Ancient Egyptian religion: Rock art as indicator for formal ritual spaces during the formative stage of the Egyptian State. PhD dissertation, Yale University.

  • Loendorf, L. (2001). Rock art recording. In D. S. Whitley (Ed.), Handbook of rock art research (pp. 55–79). Oxford: Altamira Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mancini, F., Dubbini, M., Gattelli, M., Stecchi, F., Fabbri, S., & Gabbianelli, G. (2013). Using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for high-resolution reconstruction of topography: The structure from motion approach on coastal environments. Remote Sensing, 5, 6880–6898. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5126880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mark, R. & Billo, E. (2011). Using super-high resolution panoramas (Gigapans) to document and study rock art panels. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Ariège-Pyrénées, 65–66, 1257–1264. Available on http://blogs.univ-tlse2.fr/palethnologie/wp-content/files/2013/fr-FR/version-longue/articles/FOR7_Mark-Billo.pdf. Accessed 12 Jan 2018.

  • Plets, G., Gheyle, W., Verhoeven, G., Reu, J., Bourgeois, J., Verhegge, J., & Stichelbaut, B. (2012). Three-dimensional recording of archaeological remains in the Altai Mountains. Antiquity, 86(333), 884–897. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00047980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plisson, H., & Zotkina, L. V. (2015). From 2D to 3D at macro- and microscopic scale in rock art studies. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2(2–3), 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2015.06.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poier, G., Seidl, M., Zeppelzauer, M., Reinbacher, C., Schaich, M., Bellandi, G., Marretta, A., & Bischof, H. (2017). PetroSurf3D—A dataset for high-resolution 3D surface segmentation. Proceedings of the 15th International Workshop on Content-Based Multimedia Indexing (CBMI '17), Article No. 5 (Florence, Italy — June 19–21, 2017), ACM New York, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1145/3095713.3095719.

  • Seidl M., & Breiteneder, C. (2012). Automated petroglyph image segmentation with interactive classifier fusion. Proceedings of the Eighth Indian Conference on Computer Vision, Graphics and Image Processing (ICVGIP '12), Article No. 66, (Mumbai, India — December 16–19, 2012), ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1145/2425333.2425399.

  • Seidl, M., Wieser, E., & Alexander, C. (2015). Automated classification of petroglyphs. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 2(2–3), 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2015.03.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torres, J. C., Arroyo, G., Romo, C., & De Haro, J. (2012). 3D Digitization using Structure from Motion, CEIG - Spanish Computer Graphics Conference. I. Navazo & G. Patow (Eds.), 1–11. Available on https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258246473. Accessed 12 Feb 2018.

  • Torres-Martínez, J. A., Sánchez-Aparicio, L. J., Hernández-López, D., & González-Aguilera, D. (2017). Combining geometrical and radiometrical features in the evaluation of rock art paintings. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 5, 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2017.04.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Traunecker, C. (1987). Les techniques d’épigraphie de terrain: Principes et pratique. In J. Assmann, G. Burkard, & V. Davies (Eds.), Problems and priorities in Egyptian archaeology (pp. 261–298). London: KPI Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vértes K. (2014). The epigraphic survey of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. Available on https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/digital-epigraphy. Accessed 15 Feb 2018.

  • Wang, J., Shi, F., Zhang, J., & Liu, Y. (2008). A new calibration model of camera lens distortion. Pattern Recognition, 41, 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2007.06.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeppelzauer, M., Poier, G., Seidl, M., Reinbacher, C., Schulter, S., Breiteneder, C., & Bischof, H. (2016). Interactive 3D segmentation of rock-art by enhanced depth maps and gradient preserving regularization. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 9(4), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1145/2950062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological Project (AKAP), directed by Maria C. Gatto (Leicester University) and Antonio Curci (University of Bologna) for support and motivation during the initial phases in the development of this method. Lastly, we thank the William K. and Marilyn M. Simpson Egyptology Endowment at Yale University for ongoing support of the Elkab Desert Survey Project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Yale University, 320 York Street (Room 321), New Haven, CT, 06511, USA

    Alberto Urcia & John C. Darnell

  2. University of Hartford, 200 Bloomfield Avenue, West Hartford, CT, 06117, USA

    Colleen M. Darnell

  3. Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA

    Sara E. Zaia

Authors
  1. Alberto Urcia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John C. Darnell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Colleen M. Darnell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sara E. Zaia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alberto Urcia.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Urcia, A., Darnell, J.C., Darnell, C.M. et al. From Plastic Sheets to Tablet PCs: A Digital Epigraphic Method for Recording Egyptian Rock Art and Inscriptions. Afr Archaeol Rev 35, 169–189 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-018-9297-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-018-9297-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation