Abstract
Mining in the Kizel coal basin (Perm Region, Russia) ceased 20 years ago; however, AMD with high levels of total iron (Fetotal) and trace elements still affects the rivers. In this study, we attempted to estimate inter-annual and seasonal variability of AMD-related surface water contamination using Sentinel-2 images from 2016 to 2019. The acid mine water index (AMWI), which is a normalized difference of spectral reflectance in the red and blue bands, was calculated from Sentinel-2 images. We compared the AMWI values with measured Fetotal concentrations in the surface water. A statistically significant (at a 0.05 significance level) Spearman’s rank correlation between AMWI and Fetotal concentration was found for 5 out of 7 surface water sampling points. We found that surface water contamination reaches a seasonal maximum in July, 1–1.5 months after the end of the snowmelt high water period. Excessive summer rainfalls also contributes to increased contamination, causing contamination to possibly spread more than 200 km from the AMD sources. In contrast, arid summer conditions were associated with a substantially decreased AMD discharge and Fetotal concentrations in the surface water. The main uncertainties in our results are associated with the effect of contaminated bottom and bank sediments and suspended sediments on the spectral characteristics of the water surface, and the relatively coarse (10 m) spatial resolution of Sentinel-2 images. However, despite the data and method limitations, our results show that Sentinel-2 images have substantial potential for monitoring AMD-related contamination of surface water.
Resumen
La minería en la cuenca de carbón de Kizel (región de Perm, Rusia) cesó hace 20 años; sin embargo, el drenaje ácido de minas (DAM), con altos niveles de hierro total (Fe total) y oligoelementos todavía afecta a los ríos. En este estudio, se intentó estimar la variabilidad interanual y estacional de la contaminación de las aguas superficiales provocada por el DAM utilizando imágenes de Sentinel-2 de 2016 a 2019. El índice de aguas ácidas de mina (AMWI), que es una diferencia normalizada de reflectancia espectral en las bandas roja y azul, se calculó a partir de las imágenes del Sentinel-2. Se compararon los valores del AMWI con las concentraciones totales de Fe medidas en el agua superficial. Se encontró una correlación estadísticamente significativa (a un nivel de significación de 0,05) del rango de Spearman entre la IMAO y la concentración total de Fe para 5 de los 7 puntos de muestreo de aguas superficiales. Se encontró que la contaminación de las aguas superficiales alcanza un máximo estacional en julio, de 1 a 1,5 meses después del final del período de aguas altas de deshielo. Las excesivas lluvias de verano también contribuyen al aumento de la contaminación, causando que la contaminación se extienda posiblemente a más de 200 km de las fuentes de DAM. Por el contrario, las condiciones áridas del verano se asociaron con una disminución sustancial de la descarga de DAM y de las concentraciones totales de Fe en las aguas superficiales. Las principales incertidumbres de nuestros resultados están asociadas con el efecto de los sedimentos contaminados del fondo y de las orillas y los sedimentos en suspensión sobre las características espectrales de la superficie del agua, y la resolución espacial relativamente gruesa (10 m) de las imágenes de Sentinel-2. Sin embargo, a pesar de las limitaciones de los datos y los métodos, nuestros resultados muestran que las imágenes del Sentinel-2 tienen un potencial sustancial para vigilar la contaminación de las aguas superficiales relacionada con la DAM.
Zusammenfassung
Der Kohlebergbau im Kizel Revier (Verwaltungsregion Perm, Russland) endete vor 20 Jahren, doch auch heute noch werden Flüsse durch saure Grubenwässer mit erhöhten Eisen- und Spurenelementgehalten beeinträchtigt. In der vorliegenden Studie wurde versucht, die jährliche und saisonale Schwankung von bergbaulich verursachten Kontaminationen in Oberflächengewässern für den Zeitraum 2016-2019 mittels Sentinel-2 Satellitenbildern abzuschätzen. Aus den Satellitenbildern wurde der sog. Acid Mine Water Index (AMWI) als normierte Differenz der spektralen Reflexion in den roten und blauen Bändern errechnet und mit gemessenen Konzentrationen für Gesamteisen im Oberflächenwasser verglichen. Mittels Spearman’scher Rangkorrelation (Signifikanzniveau 0,05) wurde für 5 von 7 Probenahmepunkte eine statistisch signifikante Korrelation zwischen AMWI und Eisenkonzentration festgestellt. Dabei wurde ein saisonales Maximum der Oberflächenwasserkontamination im Juli, ca. 1-1,5 Monate nach Ende der durch Schneeschmelze bedingten Hochwasserzeit festgestellt. Extreme Sommerregenfälle führten ebenfalls zu erhöhten Konzentrationen und verursachen eine Ausbreitung der Kontaminationen über mehr als 200 km von der Schadstoffquelle aus. Demgegenüber führten trockene Sommerbedingungen zu einem Rückgang des Grubenwasseraufkommens und infolgedessen zu einer Verringerung der Eisenkonzentration im Oberflächengewässer. Unsicherheiten ergaben sich infolge der relativ groben Auflösung der Sentinel-2-Bilder (10 m) sowie durch Auswirkungen kontaminierter Sedimente an Boden, Ufern und in Suspension auf die Reflexionseigenschaften der Wasseroberfläche. Ungeachtet dieser methodischen und datenbezogenen Einschränkungen zeigt die Studie das große Potential von Sentinel-2-Satellitenbildern für das Monitoring der Verunreinigung von Oberflächengewässern mit sauren Grubenwässern.
概要
经历了地基粘土层持续破坏之后, Aznalcóllar尾矿库发生溃坝, 存储的大量饱和黄铁矿尾矿溃泄而下, 迅速排出150万立方尾矿和550万立方酸性废水. 综述了导致坝下滑动面形成的主要岩土工程因素: 下方工程影响, 超固结层脆弱性, 基础粘土层高塑性和粘土层内偏高孔隙水压. 下方施工法在大堤推进脚下产生了较强的高应力比“波”, 使之经受了从峰值到残余值的作用. 高塑性和蒙脱石矿物的存在使基础粘土层脆弱性非常重要。高孔隙压力由尾砂密度高(3.1 g/cc), 粘土渗透性低和上方固结过程引起. 讨论了大坝破坏的动力学过程(位移, 速度和加速度). 从平面角度, 坝体几何形状及其与粘土层走向和倾向的关系解释了坝体的破坏位置特征. 总结了案例过程给我们留下的教训.
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Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Ministry of High Education and Science of the Russian Federation project 2019 − 0858 and RFBR Projects 17-05-41114 and 19-05-50073.
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Pyankov, S.V., Maximovich, N.G., Khayrulina, E.A. et al. Monitoring Acid Mine Drainage’s Effects on Surface Water in the Kizel Coal Basin with Sentinel-2 Satellite Images. Mine Water Environ 40, 606–621 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-021-00761-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-021-00761-7