Skip to main content
Log in

Layers of shared and cooperative control, assistance, and automation

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognition, Technology & Work Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Over the last centuries, we have experienced scientific, technological, and societal progress that enabled the creation of intelligent-assisted and automated machines with increasing abilities and that require a conscious distribution of roles and control between humans and machines. Machines can be more than either fully automated or manually controlled, but can work together with the human on different levels of assistance and automation in a hopefully beneficial cooperation. One way of cooperation is that the automation and the human have a shared control over a situation, e.g., a vehicle in an environment. Another way of cooperation is that they trade control. Cooperation can include shared and traded control. The objective of this paper is to give an overview on the development towards a common meta-model of shared and cooperative assistance and automation. The meta-models based on insight from the h(orse)–metaphor and Human–Machine Cooperation principles are presented and combined to propose a framework and criteria to design safe, efficient, ecological, and attractive systems. Cooperation is presented from different points of view such as levels of activity (operational, tactical and strategic levels) as well as the type of function shared between human and machine (information gathering, information analysis, decision selection, and action implementation). Examples will be provided in the aviation domain, in the automotive domain with the automation of driving, as well as in robotics and in manufacturing systems highlighting the usefulness of new automated function but also the increase of systems complexity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

(adapted from Rieger and Greenstein 1982)

Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

(adapted from Schmidt 1991)

Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

(adapted from Pacaux-Lemoine et al. 2015)

Fig. 12
Fig. 13

(adapted from Pacaux-Lemoine and Itoh 2015)

Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Biester DPL (2008) Cooperative automation in automobiles. Doctoral Dissertation, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

  • Billings C (1996) Human-centered aviation automation: principles and guidelines, NASA Technical Memorandum 110381

  • Bordel S, Somat A, Barbeau H, Anceaux F, Grefeuille C, Menguy G, Pacaux-lemoine M, Subirats P, Terrade F, Gallenne M (2014) From technological acceptability to appropriation by users: methodological steps for device assessment in road safety. Accid Anal Prev 67:159–165 (ISSN ISSN 0001-4575)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom N (2013) Superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Flemisch F (2017) From autonomy to competition and cooperation: potential leitmotivs for human machine assistance and automation. In: Presentation at the celebration colloquium for Prof. Toshi Inagaki, Tokyo

  • Flemisch FO, Adams CA, Conway SR, Goodrich KH, Palmer MT, Schutte MC (2003) The H-metaphor as a guideline for vehicle automation and interaction. Report No. NASA/TM-2003-212672. NASA Langley

  • Flemisch F, Heesen M, Hesse T, Kelsch J, Schieben A, Beller J (2012) Towards a dynamic balance between humans and automation: authority, ability, responsibility and control in shared and cooperative control situations. Cogn Technol Work 14(1):3–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flemisch FO, Bengler K, Bubb H, Winner H, Bruder R (2014) Towards cooperative guidance and control of highly automated vehicles: H-Mode and Conduct-by-Wire. Ergonomics 57(3):343–360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flemisch F, Altendorf E, Canpolat Y, Weßel G, Baltzer MCA, Rudolph C, López D, Voß G, Schwalm M (2016a) “Arbeiten in komplexen Mensch-Automations-Systemen: Das unheimliche und unsichere Tal der Automation, erste Skizze am Beispiel der Fahrzeugautomatisierung” Arbeit in komplexen Systemen—Digital, vernetzt, human?! 62. GfA Frühjahrskongress

  • Flemisch F, Altendorf E, Canpolat Y, Weßel G, Baltzer M, Lopez D, Herzberger N, Voß G, Schwalm M, Schutte P (2016b) Uncanny and unsafe valley of assistance and automation: first sketch and application to vehicle automation. In: Schlick C et al (eds) Advances in ergonomic design of systems, products and processes. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53305-5_23

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Flemisch F, Winner H, Bruder R, Bengler K (2016c) Cooperative guidance, control and automation. In: Handbook of driver assistance systems. Springer, Heidelberg (forth-coming)

    Google Scholar 

  • Flemisch F, Abbink D, Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Weßel G (2018) Joining the blunt and the pointy end of the spear: towards a common framework of joint action, Human–Machine Cooperation, cooperative guidance & control, shared-, traded- and supervisory control. Cognition, Technology & Work (2018/2019, this issue, under press)

  • Gasser TM, Arzt C, Ayoubi M, Bartels A, Bürkle L, Eier J, Flemisch F, Häcker D, Hesse T, Huber W, Lotz C, Maurer M, Ruth-Schumacher S, Schwarz J, Vogt W (2012) Rechtsfolgen zunehmender Fahrzeugautomatisierung—Gemeinsamer Schlussbericht (F 83) der Projektgruppe Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen BASt

  • Goodrich M, Olsen D, Crandall J, Palmer T (2001) Experiments in adjustable autonomy, technical report version of paper in proceedings of the IJCAI01 workshop on autonomy, delegation, and control: interacting with autonomous agents, Seattle, USA

  • Habib L, Pacaux-lemoine M-P, Millot P (2017a) A method for designing levels of automation based on a Human–Machine Cooperation model. IFAC World Congress, Toulouse

    Google Scholar 

  • Habib L, Pacaux-lemoine M-P, Millot P (2017b) Adaptation of the level of automation according to the type of cooperative partner. In: IEEE International conference on systems, man, and cybernetics, Banff, Canada

  • Hakuli S, Bruder R, Flemisch F, Löper C, Rausch H, Schreiber M, Winner H (2012) Kooperative automation. In: Winner H, Hakuli S, Wolf G (eds) Handbuch Fahrerassistenzsysteme. Vieweg + Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp 641–650

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hale AR, Stoop J, Hommels J (1990) Human error models as predictors of accident scenarios for designers in road transport systems. Ergonomics 33(10–11):1377–1387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hault-Dubrulle A, Robache F, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Morvan H (2011) Determination of pre-impact occupant postures and analysis of consequences on injury outcome. Part I: a driving simulator study. Accid Anal Prev 43(1):66–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoc JM, Lemoine MP (1998) Cognitive evaluation of human-human and Human–Machine Cooperation modes in air traffic control. Int J Aviat Psychol 8(1):1–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeger R, Amditis A, Kunert M, Hoess A, Flemisch F, Krueger H-P, Bartels A, Beutner A, Pagle K (2008) Highly automated vehicles for intelligent transport: HAVEit approach. ITS World Congress, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki T, Itoh M (2010) Theoretical framework for analysis and evaluation of human’s overtrust in and overreliance on advanced driver assistance systems. In: Proceedings of European Conference on Human Centred Design for Intelligent Transport Systems. HUMANIST publications, April 29–30, Berlin, Germany (ISBN 978-2-9531712-1-1)

  • Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2018) Trust view from the Human–Machine Cooperation framework. In: IEEE International conference on systems, man, and cybernetics, Miyazaki, Japan

  • Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Robache F, Morvan H (2015) An analysis of driver’s avoiding maneuver in a highly emergency situation. SICE J Control Measure Syst Integr 8(1):027–033

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemoine M-P, Debernard S, Crévits I, Millot P (1996) Cooperation between humans and machines: first results of an experimentation of a multi-level cooperative organization in air traffic control. Comput Support Coop Work 5:299–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Löper C, Kelsch J, Flemisch F (2008) Kooperative, manöverbasierte Automation und Arbitrierung als Bausteine für hochautomatisiertes Fahren. In: Automatisierungs-, Assistenzsysteme und eingebettete Systeme für Transportmittel, Braunschweig, Germany, pp 215–237

  • Michon JA (1985) A critical view of driver behavior models: what do we know, what should we do? In: Evans L, Schwing RC (eds) Human behavior & traffic safety. Plenum Press, New York, pp 485–524

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Millot P, Mandiau R (1995) Men–machine cooperative organizations: formal and pragmatic implementation methods. In: Hoc JM, Cacciabue PC, Hollnagel E (eds) Expertise and technology: cognition computer cooperation, Chap. 13. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp. 213–228, 199

    Google Scholar 

  • Millot P, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2013) A common work space for a mutual enrichment of Human–Machine Cooperation and team-situation awareness models. In: Proceedings of IFAC HMS Conference, Las Vegas, USA

  • Onken R (1999) The cognitive cockpit assistant systems CASSY/CAMA (No. 1999-01-5537). SAE Technical Paper

  • Onnasch L, Wickens C, Li H, Manzey D (2013) Human performance consequences of stages and levels of automation: an integrated meta-analysis. Hum Factors J Hum Factors Ergon Soc. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720813501549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2014) Human–Machine Cooperation principles to support life critical systems management. In Millot P (ed), Risk management in life critical systems. ISTE-Wiley, London, pp 253–277 (ISBN 978-1-84821-480-4)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Debernard S (2002) A common work space to support the air traffic control, control engineering practice. J IFAC 10:571–576

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Itoh M (2015) Towards vertical and horizontal extension of shared control concept. In: Proceedings of IEEE SMC Conference, Hong Kong, China

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Vanderhaegen F (2013): Towards levels of cooperation. In: Proceedings of IEEE systems, man, and cybernetics conference, Manchester, UK

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Ordioni J, Popieul J-C, Debernard S, Millot P (2004) Conception and evaluation of an advanced cooperative driving assistance tool. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Paris, France

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Debernard S, Godin A, Rajaonah B, Anceaux F, Vanderhaegen F (2011) Levels of automation and Human–Machine Cooperation: application to human–robot interaction. In: 18th IFAC World Congress, Milano, Italy

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Simon P, Popieul J-C (2015) Human–Machine Cooperation principles to support driving automation systems design. In: Proceedings of FAST-zero 2015, symposium: future active safety technology towards zero traffic accidents, September 9–11, 2015, Gothenburg, Sweden

  • Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Trentesaux D, Zambrano rey G, Millot P (2017) Designing intelligent manufacturing systems through Human–Machine Cooperation principles: a human-centered approach. Comput Indus Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2017.05.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parasuraman R, Sheridan TB, Wickens CD (2000) A models for types and levels of human interaction with automation. In: IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics—Part A: Systems and Humans, vol 30. IEEE, pp 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1109/3468.844354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen J (1983) Skills, rules and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. In: IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, vol SMC-13, No. 3. IEEE, pp 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1983.6313160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch N, Kaussner A, Krüger H-P, Boverie S, Flemisch F (2009) The importance of driver state assessment within highly automated vehicles. In: 16th ITS World Congress, 21–25 September, Stockholm, Sweden

  • Rauch N, Kaussner A, Krueger H-P, Boverie S, Flemisch F (2010) Measures and Countermeasures for impaired driver’s state within highly automated driving. Transport Research Arena, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieger CA, Greenstein J (1982) The allocation of tasks between the human and computer in automated systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE on International Conference on “Cybernetics and Society”, New York, USA, pp 204–208

  • SAE (2016) Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to driving automation systems for on-road motor vehicles: surface vehicle recommended practice, superseding J3016 Jan 2014, revised version 2016-09, SAE International

  • Schmidt K (1991) Cooperative work: a conceptual framework. In: Rasmussen J, Brehmer B, and Leplat J. (eds) Distributed decision making: cognitive models for cooperative work. Willey, Chichester, pp 75–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheridan TB (1992) Telerobotics, automation and human supervisory control. The MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomasello M (2014) A natural history of human thinking. Suhrkamp, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tricot N, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Popieul J-C (2004) Human Machine Cooperation: An automotive application. In: Proceedings of 9th IFAC/IFIP/IFORS/IEA SYMPOSIUM, analysis, design, and evaluation of human–machine systems, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

  • Van Brussel H, Wyns J, Valckenaers P, Bongaerts L, Peeters P (1998) Reference architecture for holonic manufacturing systems: PROSA. Comput Ind 37(3):255–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-3615(98)00102-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickens CD, Li H, Santamaria A, Sebok A, Sarter NB (2010) Stages and levels of automation: an integrated meta-analysis. Proc Hum Factors Ergonom Soc Ann Meet 54(4):389–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193121005400425

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research is part of the International Research Group, Human–Machine Systems in Transportation and Industry (HAMASYTI). Part of the research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG in the Projects “Arbitrierung” and in the DFG-focus program “Cooperatively Interacting vehicles”.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marie-Pierre Pacaux-Lemoine.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pacaux-Lemoine, MP., Flemisch, F. Layers of shared and cooperative control, assistance, and automation. Cogn Tech Work 21, 579–591 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0537-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0537-4

Keywords

Navigation