Abstract
Over the last centuries, we have experienced scientific, technological, and societal progress that enabled the creation of intelligent-assisted and automated machines with increasing abilities and that require a conscious distribution of roles and control between humans and machines. Machines can be more than either fully automated or manually controlled, but can work together with the human on different levels of assistance and automation in a hopefully beneficial cooperation. One way of cooperation is that the automation and the human have a shared control over a situation, e.g., a vehicle in an environment. Another way of cooperation is that they trade control. Cooperation can include shared and traded control. The objective of this paper is to give an overview on the development towards a common meta-model of shared and cooperative assistance and automation. The meta-models based on insight from the h(orse)–metaphor and Human–Machine Cooperation principles are presented and combined to propose a framework and criteria to design safe, efficient, ecological, and attractive systems. Cooperation is presented from different points of view such as levels of activity (operational, tactical and strategic levels) as well as the type of function shared between human and machine (information gathering, information analysis, decision selection, and action implementation). Examples will be provided in the aviation domain, in the automotive domain with the automation of driving, as well as in robotics and in manufacturing systems highlighting the usefulness of new automated function but also the increase of systems complexity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Biester DPL (2008) Cooperative automation in automobiles. Doctoral Dissertation, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Billings C (1996) Human-centered aviation automation: principles and guidelines, NASA Technical Memorandum 110381
Bordel S, Somat A, Barbeau H, Anceaux F, Grefeuille C, Menguy G, Pacaux-lemoine M, Subirats P, Terrade F, Gallenne M (2014) From technological acceptability to appropriation by users: methodological steps for device assessment in road safety. Accid Anal Prev 67:159–165 (ISSN ISSN 0001-4575)
Bostrom N (2013) Superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Flemisch F (2017) From autonomy to competition and cooperation: potential leitmotivs for human machine assistance and automation. In: Presentation at the celebration colloquium for Prof. Toshi Inagaki, Tokyo
Flemisch FO, Adams CA, Conway SR, Goodrich KH, Palmer MT, Schutte MC (2003) The H-metaphor as a guideline for vehicle automation and interaction. Report No. NASA/TM-2003-212672. NASA Langley
Flemisch F, Heesen M, Hesse T, Kelsch J, Schieben A, Beller J (2012) Towards a dynamic balance between humans and automation: authority, ability, responsibility and control in shared and cooperative control situations. Cogn Technol Work 14(1):3–18
Flemisch FO, Bengler K, Bubb H, Winner H, Bruder R (2014) Towards cooperative guidance and control of highly automated vehicles: H-Mode and Conduct-by-Wire. Ergonomics 57(3):343–360
Flemisch F, Altendorf E, Canpolat Y, Weßel G, Baltzer MCA, Rudolph C, López D, Voß G, Schwalm M (2016a) “Arbeiten in komplexen Mensch-Automations-Systemen: Das unheimliche und unsichere Tal der Automation, erste Skizze am Beispiel der Fahrzeugautomatisierung” Arbeit in komplexen Systemen—Digital, vernetzt, human?! 62. GfA Frühjahrskongress
Flemisch F, Altendorf E, Canpolat Y, Weßel G, Baltzer M, Lopez D, Herzberger N, Voß G, Schwalm M, Schutte P (2016b) Uncanny and unsafe valley of assistance and automation: first sketch and application to vehicle automation. In: Schlick C et al (eds) Advances in ergonomic design of systems, products and processes. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53305-5_23
Flemisch F, Winner H, Bruder R, Bengler K (2016c) Cooperative guidance, control and automation. In: Handbook of driver assistance systems. Springer, Heidelberg (forth-coming)
Flemisch F, Abbink D, Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Weßel G (2018) Joining the blunt and the pointy end of the spear: towards a common framework of joint action, Human–Machine Cooperation, cooperative guidance & control, shared-, traded- and supervisory control. Cognition, Technology & Work (2018/2019, this issue, under press)
Gasser TM, Arzt C, Ayoubi M, Bartels A, Bürkle L, Eier J, Flemisch F, Häcker D, Hesse T, Huber W, Lotz C, Maurer M, Ruth-Schumacher S, Schwarz J, Vogt W (2012) Rechtsfolgen zunehmender Fahrzeugautomatisierung—Gemeinsamer Schlussbericht (F 83) der Projektgruppe Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen BASt
Goodrich M, Olsen D, Crandall J, Palmer T (2001) Experiments in adjustable autonomy, technical report version of paper in proceedings of the IJCAI01 workshop on autonomy, delegation, and control: interacting with autonomous agents, Seattle, USA
Habib L, Pacaux-lemoine M-P, Millot P (2017a) A method for designing levels of automation based on a Human–Machine Cooperation model. IFAC World Congress, Toulouse
Habib L, Pacaux-lemoine M-P, Millot P (2017b) Adaptation of the level of automation according to the type of cooperative partner. In: IEEE International conference on systems, man, and cybernetics, Banff, Canada
Hakuli S, Bruder R, Flemisch F, Löper C, Rausch H, Schreiber M, Winner H (2012) Kooperative automation. In: Winner H, Hakuli S, Wolf G (eds) Handbuch Fahrerassistenzsysteme. Vieweg + Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp 641–650
Hale AR, Stoop J, Hommels J (1990) Human error models as predictors of accident scenarios for designers in road transport systems. Ergonomics 33(10–11):1377–1387
Hault-Dubrulle A, Robache F, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Morvan H (2011) Determination of pre-impact occupant postures and analysis of consequences on injury outcome. Part I: a driving simulator study. Accid Anal Prev 43(1):66–74
Hoc JM, Lemoine MP (1998) Cognitive evaluation of human-human and Human–Machine Cooperation modes in air traffic control. Int J Aviat Psychol 8(1):1–32
Hoeger R, Amditis A, Kunert M, Hoess A, Flemisch F, Krueger H-P, Bartels A, Beutner A, Pagle K (2008) Highly automated vehicles for intelligent transport: HAVEit approach. ITS World Congress, New York
Inagaki T, Itoh M (2010) Theoretical framework for analysis and evaluation of human’s overtrust in and overreliance on advanced driver assistance systems. In: Proceedings of European Conference on Human Centred Design for Intelligent Transport Systems. HUMANIST publications, April 29–30, Berlin, Germany (ISBN 978-2-9531712-1-1)
Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2018) Trust view from the Human–Machine Cooperation framework. In: IEEE International conference on systems, man, and cybernetics, Miyazaki, Japan
Itoh M, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Robache F, Morvan H (2015) An analysis of driver’s avoiding maneuver in a highly emergency situation. SICE J Control Measure Syst Integr 8(1):027–033
Lemoine M-P, Debernard S, Crévits I, Millot P (1996) Cooperation between humans and machines: first results of an experimentation of a multi-level cooperative organization in air traffic control. Comput Support Coop Work 5:299–321
Löper C, Kelsch J, Flemisch F (2008) Kooperative, manöverbasierte Automation und Arbitrierung als Bausteine für hochautomatisiertes Fahren. In: Automatisierungs-, Assistenzsysteme und eingebettete Systeme für Transportmittel, Braunschweig, Germany, pp 215–237
Michon JA (1985) A critical view of driver behavior models: what do we know, what should we do? In: Evans L, Schwing RC (eds) Human behavior & traffic safety. Plenum Press, New York, pp 485–524
Millot P, Mandiau R (1995) Men–machine cooperative organizations: formal and pragmatic implementation methods. In: Hoc JM, Cacciabue PC, Hollnagel E (eds) Expertise and technology: cognition computer cooperation, Chap. 13. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp. 213–228, 199
Millot P, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2013) A common work space for a mutual enrichment of Human–Machine Cooperation and team-situation awareness models. In: Proceedings of IFAC HMS Conference, Las Vegas, USA
Onken R (1999) The cognitive cockpit assistant systems CASSY/CAMA (No. 1999-01-5537). SAE Technical Paper
Onnasch L, Wickens C, Li H, Manzey D (2013) Human performance consequences of stages and levels of automation: an integrated meta-analysis. Hum Factors J Hum Factors Ergon Soc. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720813501549
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P (2014) Human–Machine Cooperation principles to support life critical systems management. In Millot P (ed), Risk management in life critical systems. ISTE-Wiley, London, pp 253–277 (ISBN 978-1-84821-480-4)
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Debernard S (2002) A common work space to support the air traffic control, control engineering practice. J IFAC 10:571–576
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Itoh M (2015) Towards vertical and horizontal extension of shared control concept. In: Proceedings of IEEE SMC Conference, Hong Kong, China
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Vanderhaegen F (2013): Towards levels of cooperation. In: Proceedings of IEEE systems, man, and cybernetics conference, Manchester, UK
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Ordioni J, Popieul J-C, Debernard S, Millot P (2004) Conception and evaluation of an advanced cooperative driving assistance tool. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Paris, France
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Debernard S, Godin A, Rajaonah B, Anceaux F, Vanderhaegen F (2011) Levels of automation and Human–Machine Cooperation: application to human–robot interaction. In: 18th IFAC World Congress, Milano, Italy
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Simon P, Popieul J-C (2015) Human–Machine Cooperation principles to support driving automation systems design. In: Proceedings of FAST-zero 2015, symposium: future active safety technology towards zero traffic accidents, September 9–11, 2015, Gothenburg, Sweden
Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Trentesaux D, Zambrano rey G, Millot P (2017) Designing intelligent manufacturing systems through Human–Machine Cooperation principles: a human-centered approach. Comput Indus Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2017.05.014
Parasuraman R, Sheridan TB, Wickens CD (2000) A models for types and levels of human interaction with automation. In: IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics—Part A: Systems and Humans, vol 30. IEEE, pp 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1109/3468.844354
Rasmussen J (1983) Skills, rules and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. In: IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, vol SMC-13, No. 3. IEEE, pp 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1983.6313160
Rauch N, Kaussner A, Krüger H-P, Boverie S, Flemisch F (2009) The importance of driver state assessment within highly automated vehicles. In: 16th ITS World Congress, 21–25 September, Stockholm, Sweden
Rauch N, Kaussner A, Krueger H-P, Boverie S, Flemisch F (2010) Measures and Countermeasures for impaired driver’s state within highly automated driving. Transport Research Arena, Brussels
Rieger CA, Greenstein J (1982) The allocation of tasks between the human and computer in automated systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE on International Conference on “Cybernetics and Society”, New York, USA, pp 204–208
SAE (2016) Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to driving automation systems for on-road motor vehicles: surface vehicle recommended practice, superseding J3016 Jan 2014, revised version 2016-09, SAE International
Schmidt K (1991) Cooperative work: a conceptual framework. In: Rasmussen J, Brehmer B, and Leplat J. (eds) Distributed decision making: cognitive models for cooperative work. Willey, Chichester, pp 75–110
Sheridan TB (1992) Telerobotics, automation and human supervisory control. The MIT Press, Cambridge
Tomasello M (2014) A natural history of human thinking. Suhrkamp, Berlin
Tricot N, Pacaux-Lemoine M-P, Popieul J-C (2004) Human Machine Cooperation: An automotive application. In: Proceedings of 9th IFAC/IFIP/IFORS/IEA SYMPOSIUM, analysis, design, and evaluation of human–machine systems, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Van Brussel H, Wyns J, Valckenaers P, Bongaerts L, Peeters P (1998) Reference architecture for holonic manufacturing systems: PROSA. Comput Ind 37(3):255–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-3615(98)00102-X
Wickens CD, Li H, Santamaria A, Sebok A, Sarter NB (2010) Stages and levels of automation: an integrated meta-analysis. Proc Hum Factors Ergonom Soc Ann Meet 54(4):389–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193121005400425
Acknowledgements
This research is part of the International Research Group, Human–Machine Systems in Transportation and Industry (HAMASYTI). Part of the research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG in the Projects “Arbitrierung” and in the DFG-focus program “Cooperatively Interacting vehicles”.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pacaux-Lemoine, MP., Flemisch, F. Layers of shared and cooperative control, assistance, and automation. Cogn Tech Work 21, 579–591 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0537-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0537-4