Abstract
The Castañar Cave (central W Spain) was formed within mixed carbonate-siliciclastic rocks of the Neoproterozoic age. The host rock is finely bedded and presents a complex network of folds and fractures, with a prevalent N150E strike. This structure controlled the development and the maze-pattern of the cave, as well as its main water routes. The cave was formed more than 350,000 years ago as a result of the dissolution of interbedded carbonates along with weathering of siliciclastic beds, which also promoted the collapse of the overlying host rock. Currently, it is a vadose cave, but its initial development could have been phreatic. The cave is well known for the outstanding quality of its aragonite speleothems. At present, the cave only receives restricted scientific and educational visits, and therefore it is advisable to perform a preliminary stability assessment through the application of internationally accepted engineering criteria for the evaluation of underground space stability. The aim of this study is to apply engineering rock mass classifications and an empirical approach for tunneling design to the preliminary assessment of karstic caves. The stability of some of the rooms was assessed by the stability graph method, widely used to analyze polyhedral mining rooms, but there are no existing references for its application to karstic caves. The stability of karstic caves can be assessed similarly to man-made excavations, but due to its geological heritage, recognition must always be non destructive. Geotechnical observation points are useful tools fulfill this requisite, and have been applied to the Castañar Cave. The Q index and the stability graph method have both proven to be useful, but due to the polyhedral shape of the cave, the Stability Graph technique has presented more realistic results.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alonso-Zarza AM, Martín-Pérez A, Martín-García R, Gil-Peña I, Meléndez A, Martínez-Flores E, Hellstrom J, Muñoz-Barco P (2011) Structural and host rock control son the distribution, morphology and mineralogy of speleothems in the Castañar Cave (Spain). Geol Mag 148(2):211–225
Barton N (1976) Unsupported underground openings. Rock Mechanics Discussion Meeting, Befo, Swedish Rock Mechanics Research Foundation, Stockholm, pp 61–94
Barton N, Bieniwaski ZT (2008) RMR and Q: setting records straight. Tunn Tunn Int 26–29
Barton N, Grimstad E (2004) The Q system following thirty years of development and application in tunnelling projects. In: Eurorock 2004 & 53rd geomechanics Colloquium Schubert (ed.)
Barton N, Lien R, Lunde J (1974) Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel support. Rock Mech 6(4):189–236
Bieniawski ZT (1973) Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Trans S Afr Int Civ Eng 15:335–344
Bieniawski ZT (1974) Geomechanics classification of rock masses and its application in tunnelling. In: Advances in rock mechanics, Proceedings of 3rd International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Denver, Colorado, USA, pp 27–32
Bieniawski ZT (1976) Rock mass classification in rock engineering. In: Proceedings symposium on exploration for rock engineering, Johannesburg, pp 97–107
Bieniawski ZT (1979) The geomechanics classification in rock engineering applications. In: Reprinted from proceedings of the 4th congress of the international society for rock mechanics, vol 5. ISRM, Montreux, Balkema, Boston, pp 55–95
Bieniawski ZT (2011) Errores en la aplicacion de las clasificaciones geomecánicas y su corrección. Conferencia magistral Adif—Geocontrol. http://www.geocontrol.es/publicaciones/EB-189_adif_errores_en_la_aplicacion_bieniawski.pdf. Accessed 19 Nov 2015
Diez-Balda MA, García Casquero JL, Monteserín V, Nozal F, Pardo MV, Robles R (1990) Cizallamientos subverticales posteriores a la segunda fase de deformación hercínica al Sur de Salamanca. Rev Soc Geol España 3:117–125
Dips (2008) User’s manual. Rocscience Inc., Toronto
Examine2D (2009) User’s manual. Rocscience Inc., Toronto
Hatzor YH, Wainshtein I, Mazor DB (2010) Stability of shallow karstic caverns in blocy rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 47:1289–1303
Hoek E, Kaiser PK, Bawden WF (1995) Support of underground excavations in hard rock. A.A Balkema, Rotterdam, p 215
Hoek E, Carranza-Torres CT, Corkum B (2002) Hoek—Brown failure criterion—2002 edition. In: Bawden HRW, Curran J, Telesnicki M (eds) Proceedings of the North American Rock Mechanics Society (NARMS-TAC 2002). Mining Innovation and Technology, Toronto, pp 267–273
IGME (1988) Estudio de viabilidad de apertura y explotacion turıstica de la cueva de Castanar de Ibor (Caceres), Madrid. Intern Rep (in Spanish)
Lollino P, Martimucci V, Parise M (2013) Geological survey and numerical modeling of the potential failure mechanisms of underground caves. Geosystem Eng 16(1):100–112
Martin CD, Kaiser PK, McCreath DR (1999) Hoek-Brown parameters for predicting the depth of brittle failure around tunnels. Can Geotech J 36(1):136–151
Mathews KE, Hoek E, Wyllie DC, Stewart SBV (1981) Prediction of stable excavations for mining at depth below 1000 metres in hard rock. CANMET Report DSS Serial No. OSQ80-00081, DSS File No. 17SQ.23440-0-9020. Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa
Mawdesley CA (2002) Predicting rock mass cavability in block caving mines. Ph.D. thesis, Dissertation, University of Queensland
NGI (2013) Using the Q-system, Rock mass classification and support design, NGI, Oslo, Norway, p 57
Nickson SD (1992) Cable support guidelines for underground hard rock mine operations. M.A.Sc. thesis, Dissertation. The University of British Columbia
Palmer AN (2007) Cave geology. Cave books, Dayton, OH
Potvin Y (1988) Empirical open stope design in Canada. Ph.D. thesis. Dissertation, The University of British Columbia
Potvin Y (2014) The modified stability graph method; more than 30 years later. Short course and keynote lecture, Lima, ISRM sponsored symposium
Potvin Y, Dight P, Wesseloo J (2012) Some pitfalls and misuse of rock mass classification systems for mine design. J South Afr Inst Min Metall 112(8):01–06
Waltham T (2002) The engineering classification of karst with respect of the role and influence of caves. Int J Speleol 31:19–35
Waltham AC, Fookes PG (2003) Engineering classification of karst ground conditions. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 36:101–118
Waltham T, Lu Z (2007) Natural and anthropogenic rock collapse over open caves. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 279:13–21
Waltham T, Bell F, Culshaw M (2005) Sinkholes and Subsidence: karst and cavernous rocks in engineering and construction. Springer, Berlin
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Prometeo Project of the Superior Education, Science, Technology and Innovation Secretary of the Republic of Ecuador for the support. The geotechnical analysis and interpretation of results were carried out by the Earth Sciences Faculty of the Polytechnic Superior School of the Guayaquil Coast, in Ecuador. Thanks are extended to the Rocscience software firm of Toronto, Canada, for providing the academic version of the softwares used: DipsV5, Rocdata and Examine2Dv8. This work is included in the project: “Environmental and Geological Study of the Natural Monument: Cueva de Castañar” funded by FEADER, through a contract between the Government of Extremadura (Spain) and CSIC. We also give thanks for the contribution to Project CGL2014-54818.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jordá-Bordehore, L., Martín-García, R., Alonso-Zarza, A.M. et al. Stability assessment of shallow limestone caves through an empirical approach: application of the stability graph method to the Castañar Cave study site (Spain). Bull Eng Geol Environ 75, 1469–1483 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0836-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0836-4