Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mapping calcretes in Inhambane province, Mozambique, for use in road construction

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Calcretes have been used extensively in southern Africa, and elsewhere, for low-volume road construction. In Inhambane province of Mozambique, naturally occurring gravels are rare and calcrete is used wherever it is known to occur in reasonable proximity to the road network. While considerable research and development has been undertaken in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa on the prospecting and engineering usage of calcrete, little work has been undertaken in Mozambique. Remote sensing and field probing, followed by trial pitting and laboratory testing were undertaken in order to locate hitherto unknown deposits of calcrete and to test its basic engineering properties for use in road construction. The findings from other parts of southern Africa were examined in terms of their applicability to Inhambane province, and the locations of existing calcrete borrow pits were examined to determine whether they had common geographical attributes that could assist in the identification of new sources. The study led to the discovery of approximately 20 locations of calcrete potential. Thirteen of these were investigated using trial pits, and ten of these yielded calcrete. A list of additional sites within the vicinity of the road network was developed from remote sensing. The occurrence of calcrete appears to be quite localised within the province and its location is governed by very subtle changes in topography and drainage regime, some of which may be inherited from past climate and environmental factors that are no longer apparent.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Desert and semi-desert climates according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification reproduced, for example, in Kotek et al. (2006).

  2. A maximum plasticity index (PI) of 6 % and narrow grading envelope (AASHTO M-145, ASTM D1241, TRL 1993) and a minimum 4-day soaked CBR of 80 % at 98 % BS 1377-4 heavy compaction (TRL 1993).

  3. A maximum PI of 15 % and a minimum 4-day soaked CBR of 60 % at M AASHO.

  4. Less than 500 vehicles per day [up to 0.2 million ESA (Equivalent Standard Axles)].

  5. A maximum PI of 25 % and minimum CBR of 40 % at 98 % compaction (BS 1377-4 Heavy; AASHTO T-180) for 0.3 million ESA.

  6. Sprayed bituminous surfacing using graded natural gravel rather than single-sized crushed rock.

  7. On the 1:2 million scale geological mapping (Oberholzer 1968) this outcrop is shown as Undifferentiated and lower Tertiary in age. On the 1:250,000 scale geological mapping (Trigo Mira 1963), it is shown as Chicolane Formation and Mio/Pliocene in age. Lächelt (2004) ascribes the age of the Mazamba Formation to lower Miocene.

  8. The Chengane River forms the border between Inhambane province and Gaza province to the west.

  9. The Funhalouro Graben is described as a local sub-structure of the Mazunga Graben (Ferro and Bouman 1987), though Cílek (1989) shows them as different structures, with the latter structure further to the east (Fig. 5).

  10. These species were identified by visual observation on site and were not verified by a botanist.

  11. Empirical relationship describing particle size distribution based on percentage passing 2.0, 0.425 and 0.075 mm sieves.

  12. Generally the LGM is considered to have been 15–25 Ka BP (Ray and Adams 2001).

  13. Adams and Post (1999) describe how global soil carbon storage is estimated to have been approximately 50 % greater during the LGM than at present.

  14. Further details on the mapping of carbonates from digital remote sensing analysis can be found, for example, in Knepper and Simpson (1992) and Yang et al. (2000).

References

  • Achimo M, Mugabe J, Cuamba F, Haldorsen S (2004) Late Weichselian to Holocene evolution of the Maputo Bay, Mozambique. In: The impact of sea level change, past, present and future, Boletim Géologico, vol 43. Proceedings of the INQUA Commission on the Holocene, Inhaca, Moçambique, 4–8 November 2002, pp 20–27

  • Achyuthan H, Shankar N, Braida M, Ahmad SM (2012) Geochemistry of calcretes (calcic palaeosols and hardpan), Coimbatore, southern India: formation and paleoenvironment. Quat Int 265:155–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adams JM, Post WM (1999) A preliminary estimate of changing calcrete carbon storage on land since the last glacial maximum. Global Planet Change 20:243–256

  • Afonso R, Marques JM, Ferrara M (1998) A evolução geológica de Moçambique. Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, Lisboa

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonso-Zarza A M, Wright V P (2010) Calcretes. In: Alonso-Zarza AM, Tanner LH (eds) Carbonates in continental settings, Developments in sedimentology, vol 61, chapter 5. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 225–267

  • Barrocoso AF (1968) Carta Geológica de Moçambique, escala 1:250,000. Boletim dos Serviços de Geologia e Minas 34:1–46 (Lourenço Marques)

    Google Scholar 

  • Borges A, Cox LR, Stubblefield CJ (1939) Dépositos terciários e pospliocenos do distrito de Inhambane e estudo paleontológico das respectivas faunas de moluscos e de crustaceos. Boletim dos Serviços de Indústria Minas e Geologia, vol 3, (Lourenço Marques)

  • Botswana Roads Department (1982) Botswana road design manual. Ministry of Works and Communications, Gaborone, Botswana

    Google Scholar 

  • Botswana Roads Department (2000) Methods and procedures for prospecting for road construction materials. Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Gaborone, Botswana

    Google Scholar 

  • Candy I, Black S (2009) The timing of Quaternary calcrete development in semi-arid southeast Spain: investigating the role of climate on calcrete genesis. Sed Geol 218:6–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cílek V (1989) Industrial minerals of Mozambique. Czech Geological Office, Prague

    Google Scholar 

  • COLTO (1998) Standard specifications for road and bridge works for state road authorities. Committee of Land Transport Officials, Department of Transport, Pretoria

  • Cooke HJ (1975) The palaeoclimatic significance of caves and adjacent landforms in Western Ngamiland, Botswana. Geogr J 141:430–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke HJ, Verhagen BTh (1977) The dating of cave development—an example from Botswana. In: Proceedings of the 7th international Speleological Congress, Sheffield

  • De Pascale GP and Matsinhe M (2011) Preliminary assessment and geological evidence for the seismogenic potential of southernmost portion of the East African Rift, Mozambique. T18, session No 75. In: Proterozoic and modern rifts: sedimentary and volcanic processes and the role of inherited structures, Minneapolis

  • Dhir RP, Tandon SK, Sareen BK, Ramesh R, Rao TKG, Kailath AJ, Sharma N (2004) Calcretes in the Thar: genesis, chronology and palaeoenvironment. Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) 113(3):473–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhir RP, Singhvi AK, Andrews JE, Kar A, Sareen BK, Tandon SK, Kailath A, Thomas JV (2010) Multiple episodes of aggradation and calcrete formation in Late Quaternary aeolian sands, central Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India. J Asian Earth Sci 37:10–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dingle RV, Siesser WG, Newton AR (1983) Mesozoic and tertiary geology of southern Africa. AA Balkema, Rotterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Toit AL (1954) The geology of South Africa. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferro BPA, Bouman D (1987) Explanatory notes to the hydrogeological map of Mozambique, scale 1:100,000. Ministry of Construction and Water, National Directorate of Water Affairs, UNICEF, Mozambique

    Google Scholar 

  • Flores GM (1973) The Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary basins of Mozambique and Zululand. In: Blant GT (ed) Sedimentary basins of the African coasts. Part II. Association of African Geological Survey, Paris, pp 81–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca JFBD, Chamussa J, Domingues AL, Helffrich G, Antunes E, van Aswegen G, Pinto LV, Custódio S, Manhiça VJ (2014) MOZART—a seismological investigation of the East African Rift in Central Mozambique. Seismol Res Lett 85(1):108–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godana H, Mwatelah JKZ, Abiero-Gariy ZC (2010) Suitability of calcrete as a road construction material for low volume roads in the arid and semi-arid regions: case study north-eastern Kenya. J Agric Sci Technol 12(1):110–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Goudie AS (1983) Calcrete. In: Goudie AS, Pye K (eds) Chemical sediments and geomorphology. Academic Press, London, pp 93–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Grantham GH et al (2011) Explanation of the geological map of Mozambique, 1:1,000,000. Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Maputo

  • Greening A, Rolt J (1996) Calcrete in roadbases in the Kalahari region of southern Africa. Transport Research Laboratory, report No. CPR1390

  • Griffiths JS, Fookes PG, Goudie AS, Stokes M, Engineering Group Working Party (2012) Processes and landforms in deserts. In: Walker MJ (ed) Hot deserts: engineering, geology and geomorphology, Engineering Group Working Party Report, Geological Society of London, Engineering Geology Special Publication 25, pp 33–95

  • GTK Consortium (2006) Notícia Explicativa da Carta Geológica 1:250,000. Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Maputo

  • Haddon IG (2005) The sub-Kalahari geology and tectonic evolution of the Kalahari Basin, Southern Africa. PhD thesis, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

  • Hartnady CJH (2006) Seismotectonics of Southern Mozambique. 21st Colloquium on African Geology, Maputo, 3–5 July 2006

  • Hartzer FJ (2008) 1:1 million Carta Geológica, Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Republica de Moçambique, Council for Geoscience, South Africa

  • Heine K (1982) The main stages of the Late Quaternary evolution of the Kalahari region, southern Africa. Palaeoecol Africa 15:53–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn BLD, Pereira VP, Schultz CL (2013) Calcretes of the Santa Maria supersequence, Middle Triassic, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: classification, genesis and paleoclimatic implications. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 376:39–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King LC (1983) Wandering continents and spreading sea floors on an expanding earth. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkland L, Herr K, Keim E, Adams P, Salisbury J, Hackwell J, Treiman A (2002) First use of an airborne thermal infrared hyperspectral scanner for compositional mapping. Remote Sens Environ 80:447–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knepper DH, Simpson SL (1992) Remote sensing. In: Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia. US Geological Survey and Serviçio Geologico de Bolivia, US Geological Survey Bulletin 1975: 47–55

  • Kottek M, Grieser J, Beck C, Rudolf B, Rubel F (2006) World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Meteorol Z 15:259–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruse SE, Schneider JC, Campagna DJ, Inman JA, Hickey TD (2000) Ground penetrating radar imaging of cap rock, caliche and carbonate strata. J Appl Geophys 43:239–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lächelt S (2004) Geology and mineral resources of Mozambique, Ministério dos Recursos Minerais e Energia, Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Republica de Moçambique

  • Lamplugh GW (1902) Calcretes. Geol Mag 9:575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrance CJ, Toole T (1984) The location, selection and use of calcrete for bituminous road construction in Botswana. TRRL Lab. Rep. 112, Crowthorne, Berkshire

  • Lionjanga AV, Toole T, Newill D (1987a) The development of specifications for the use of low-grade calcretes in lightly trafficked roads in Botswana. Trans. Res. Rec 1106(1):281–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Lionjanga AV, Toole T, Greening PAK (1987b) The use of calcrete in paved roads in Botswana. In: Proceedings of the 9th regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Lagos 1: pp 489–502 (TRL Paper PA1185/87)

  • Mack GH, James WC (1994) Paleoclimate and the global distribution of paleosols. J Geol 102:360–366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mack GH, Cole DR, Treviño L (2000) The distribution and discrimination of shallow, authigenic carbonate in the Pliocene–Pleistocene Palomas Basin, southern Rio Grande rift. Geol Soc Am Bull 112:643–656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main Roads, Western Australia (2003) A guide to the selection and use of naturally occurring materials as base and subbase in roads in Western Australia. Report 18 M (13062003)

  • Manninen T, Eerola T, Makitie H, Vuori S, Luttinen A, Senvano A, Manhica V (2008) The Karoo volcanic rocks and related intrusions in southern and central Mozambique. Geol Surv Finland Spec Pap 48:211–250

    Google Scholar 

  • McNally GH (1995) Engineering characteristics and uses of duricrusts in Australia. Aust J Earth Sci 42:535–647

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara M, Larsen E (2006) Banhine National Park, Gaza province, Mozambique. Watershed assessment, African Wildlife Foundation, United States Forest Service international programs. 10/2006 (internet document)

  • Mountain MJ (1967) The location of pedogenic materials, using aerial photographs, with some examples from South Africa. Proceedings of the 4th regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Cape Town vol 1, pp 35–40

  • Nash DJ, McLaren SJ (2003) Kalahari valley calcretes: their nature, origins and environmental significance. Quat Int 111:3–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Netterberg F (1967) Some roadmaking properties of South African calcretes. Proceedings of the 4th regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Cape Town, vol 1, pp 77–81 (CSIR Reprint RR 91)

  • Netterberg F (1969a) The geology and engineering properties of South African calcretes. CSIR Monograph, Pretoria, PhD thesis, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 4 volumes

  • Netterberg F (1969b) The interpretation of some basic calcrete types. Proceedings of the 1st South African Quat Conf, Cape Town. In: South African Archaeol Bull 24, 3 and 4 (95 and 96), pp 117–122. CSIR Reprint RR 104

  • Netterberg F (1971) Calcrete in road construction. CSIR Research Report 286, NIRR Bulletin No 10, Pretoria

  • Netterberg F (1978a) Calcrete wearing courses for unpaved roads. Civil Eng South Afr 20, 6, pp 129–138. CSIR Reprint RR 228

  • Netterberg F (1978b) Prospecting for calcrete road materials in South and South West Africa. Civil Engr South Afr 20, 1, pp 3–10. CSIR Reprint RR 227

  • Netterberg F (1980) Geology of southern African calcretes, 1. Terminology, description and classification. Trans Geol Soc South Afr 83, 2 pp 255–283. CSIR Reprint RR 301

  • Netterberg F (1982) Behaviour of calcretes as flexible pavement materials in Southern Africa. In: Proceedings of 11th ARRB conference, Melbourne 11, 3, pp 60–69. CSIR Reprint RR 325

  • Netterberg F (1985) Pedocretes, chapter 10 In: Brink ABA (ed), Engineering geology of Southern Africa 4, pp 286–307, Building Publications, Silverton (CSIR Reprint RR 430)

  • Netterberg F (1994) Engineering geology of pedocretes and other residual soils. In: Proceedings of 7th congress International Association Engineering Geology, Lisbon, Keynote address, Theme 4, V, XIX–XXXVIII

  • Netterberg F (1996) Prospecting for pedocretes for use as road construction material; a review. Dept Transport Res Rep RR 90/277, Pretoria

  • Netterberg F, Caiger JH (1983) A geotechnical classification of calcretes and other pedocretes. In:Wilson RCL (ed) Residual deposits: surface related weathering processes and materials, Geol Soc Spec Pub No. 11, Blackwell Science Publications, London, pp 235–243 (CSIR Reprint RR 368)

  • Netterberg F, Overby C (1983) Rapid materials reconnaissance for a calcrete road in Botswana. In: Proceedings of the 7th regional conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Accra 2, pp 765–768 (CSIR Reprint RR 340)

  • Netterberg F, Pinard MI (1991) Derivation of interim performance-related specifications for coarsely graded plastic calcrete base course gravels. In: Proceedings of the 10th annual conference for Africa on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Maseru

  • Oberholzer WF (1968) Carta Geológica de Província de Moçambique, Escala 1:2,000,000. Direcção Provincial dos Serviços de Geologia e Minas, Lourenço Marques

    Google Scholar 

  • Partridge TC (1997) Cainozoic environmental change in Southern Africa, with special emphasis on the last 200,000 years. Prog Phys Geogr 21:3–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeiffer M, Aburto F, Le Roux JP, Kemnitz H, Sedov S, Solleiro-Rebolledo E, Seguel O (2012) Development of a Pleistocene calcrete over a sequence of marine terraces at Tongoy (north-central Chile) and its paleoenvironmental implications. Catena 97:104–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickford M (2012) Moçambique palaeontology reconnaissance. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray N, Adams JM (2001) A GIS-based vegetation map of the world at the Last Glacial Maximum (25,000–15,000 BP). Internet Archaeology 11:1–44

  • Ringrose S, Kampunzu AB, Vink B, Matheson W, Downey B (2002) Origin and palaeo-environments of calcareous sediments in the Moshaweng dry valley, southeast Botswana. Earth Surf Proc Land 27:591–611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ringrose S, Harris C, Huntsman-Mapila P, Vink BW, Diskins S, Vanderpost C, Matheson W (2009) Origins of strandline duricrusts around the Makgadikgadi pans (Botswana Kalahari) as deduced from their chemical and isotope composition. Sed Geol 219:262–279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins LH et al (1996) Paleoenvironment and archaeology of Drotsky’s Cave: western Kalahari Desert. Botsw J Archaeol Sci 23:7–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Thomas DSG (1993) Geomorphological processes, environmental change and landscape sensitivity in the Kalahari region of southern Africa. In: Thomas DSG, Allison R (eds) Landscape sensitivity. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw PA, Thomas DSG, Nash DJ (1992) Late Quaternary fluvial activity in the dry valleys (mekgacha) of the Middle and Southern Kalahari, Southern Africa. J Quat Sci 7:273–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RB, Hawkins G (1982) Utilisation of calcretes for road pavement construction in the arid western area of NSW. In: Proceedings of 11th Australian Road Research Board conference 11, pp 145–155

  • Stokes M, Nash DJ, Harvey AM (2007) Calcrete ‘fossilisation’ of alluvial fans in SE Spain: the roles of groundwater, pedogenic processes and fan dynamics in calcrete development. Geomorphology 85:63–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DSG, Shaw PA (2002) Late Quaternary environmental change in central southern Africa: new data, synthesis, issues and prospects. Quat Sci Rev 21:783–797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toole T (1986) The use of calcrete in paved roads. TRRL Overseas Unit Working Paper No. 211. Overseas Unit, TRRL, Crowthorne

  • Trigo Mira JM (1963) Carta Geológica Província de Moçambique, Escala 1:250,000. Edição dos Serviços de Geologia e Minas da Província de Moçambique, Lourenço Marques

    Google Scholar 

  • TRL (1993) A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Overseas Road Note 31. Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne

  • UNAC (2011) Estudos dos recursos e necessidades hídricas do Distrito de Funhalouro. Projeto poloto de agua rural no Distrito de Funhalouro, 2010–2011. Enginyeria Sense Fronteres, Uniao Nacional de Camponeses

  • Van der Laan FB, D’Hondt A, Van Mourik D, Vilanculos M (1982) Land resource survey of the interior of the northern and central part of the Inhambane province, Mozambique. Vol 1, AGOA/MOZ/75/011, Field Document No 44, FAO/UNDP

  • Vasconcelos L (2009) Coal in Mozambique. In: 3rd Symposium on Gondwana coals, Pontificía Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 16–18 September 2009

  • Wagner S, Günster N, Skowronek A (2012) Genesis and climatic interpretation of paleosols and calcretes in a Plio-Pleistocene alluvial fan of the Costa Blanca (SE Spain). Quat Int 265:170–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang H, Van der Meer FD, Zhang J (2000) Aerospace detection of hydrocarbon-induced alteration. In: Hale M (ed) Geochemical remote sensing of the subsurface, Handbook of Exploration Geochemistry, vol 7, 7. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was undertaken on behalf of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), UK, and within the framework of the Africa Community Access Programme, supported by the UK Department for International Development (DFID). The fieldwork, and the trial pitting in particular, was undertaken in conjunction with ANE (Administração Nacional de Estradas) and the assistance of Engineers Joana Guiuele, Francisco Manheche, Óscar Francisco and Lino Jorge Caixane is gratefully acknowledged. The author would also like to thank the staff of Cenacarta (Centro Nacional de Cartografia e Teledetecção), Maputo who provided access to the stereo aerial photography for Inhambane province. Camila de Sousa of the Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique provided some guidance on plant identification while Julio Antonio Conjo of the Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, Maputo provided access to various geological reports and maps. James Mitchell undertook the interpretation of the Landsat and ASTER data sets and David Hume was responsible for digitising field maps and developing the GIS and related mapping outputs. Tony Greening of TRL was project Team Leader and Mike Pinard project Materials Engineer. The Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, undertook the petrographic and XRD analysis on recovered samples. Dr Frank Netterberg provided peer review advice throughout the progress of the project and provided comments on both the draft and final versions of this paper. His contribution is gratefully acknowledged. Drawings were produced by Karen Finlay.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hearn Geoserve Ltd, 23 Little Paddocks, Ferring, West Sussex, BN12 5NJ, United Kingdom

    Gareth J. Hearn

Authors
  1. Gareth J. Hearn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gareth J. Hearn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hearn, G.J. Mapping calcretes in Inhambane province, Mozambique, for use in road construction. Bull Eng Geol Environ 74, 405–426 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0688-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0688-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation