Abstract
The rapid decline of groundwater levels (GWL) due to pervasive groundwater abstraction in the densely populated (~1 billion) Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (IGBM) transboundary river basins of South Asia, necessitates a robust framework of prediction and understanding. While few localized studies exist, three-dimensional regional-scale characterization of GWL prediction is yet to be implemented. Here, ‘support vector machine’, a machine-learning-based method, is applied to data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and data on land-surface-model-based groundwater storage and meteorological variables, to predict the GWL anomaly (GWLA) in the IGBM. The study has three main objectives, (1) to understand the spatial (observation well locations) and subsurface (shallow vs. deep observation wells) variability in prediction results for in-situ GWLA data for a large number of observation wells (n = 4,791); (2) to determine its relationship with groundwater abstraction, and; (3) to outline the advantages and limitations of using GRACE data for predicting GWLAs. The findings, based on individual observation well results, suggest significant prediction efficiency (median statistics: r > 0.71, NSE > 0.70; p < 0.05) in most of the IGBM; however, the study identifies hotspots, mostly in the agriculture-intensive regions, having relatively poor model performance. Further analysis of the subsurface depth-wise prediction statistics reveals that the significant dominance of pumping in the deeper depths of the aquifer is linked to the relatively poor model performance for the deep observation wells (screen depth > 35 m) compared with the shallow observation wells (screen depth < 35 m), thus, highlighting the limitation of GRACE in representing spatial and depth-dependent local-scale pumping.
Résumé
La baisse rapide des niveaux des eaux souterraines (NES) due à l’extraction omniprésente des eaux souterraines dans les bassins fluviaux transfrontaliers densément peuplés (~1 milliard) de l’Indus, du Gange, du Brahmapoutre et du Meghna (IGBM) d’Asie du Sud, nécessite un cadre solide de prévision et de compréhension. Bien qu’il existe peu d’études localisées, une caractérisation tridimensionnelle à l’échelle régionale de la prévision du NES est encore à réaliser. Ici, ‘les machines à vecteurs de support’, une méthode basée sur l’apprentissage automatique, est appliquée aux données de GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) et aux données sur le stockage des eaux souterraines basées sur un modèle de surface terrestre et sur les variables météorologiques afin de prévoir les anomalies du NES (ANES) dans les IGBM. L’étude a trois objectifs principaux, (1) comprendre la variabilité dans l’espace (localisation des puits d’observation) et en profondeur (puits d’observation peu profonds vs. puits d’observation profonds) des résultats prédictifs des données sur les ANES in-situ sur un grand nombre de puits d’observation (n = 4,791); (2) déterminer sa relation avec l’exploitation des eaux souterraines et (3) cerner les avantages et les limites du recours aux données de GRACE pour prédire les ANES. Les constatations, basées sur les résultats des puits d’observation individuels, suggèrent une efficacité de prédiction significative (médianes statistiques: r > 0.71, NSE > 0.70; p < 0.05) dans la plupart des IGBM; cependant, l’étude identifie des points sensibles, surtout dans les régions d’agriculture intensive, qui présentent des performances relativement médiocres du modèle. Une analyse plus poussée des statistiques de prédiction en profondeur sous la surface révèle que la prédominance significative du pompage aux profondeurs les plus importantes de l’aquifère est liée à la performance relativement médiocre du modèle pour les puits d’observation profonds (profondeur de la crépine > 35 m) par rapport aux puits d’observation peu profonds (profondeur de la crépine < 35 m), mettant en évidence les limites de GRACE à représenter l’impact de pompages tant spatialement qu’en fonction de la profondeur à l’échelle locale.
Resumen
La rápida profundización de los niveles de las aguas subterráneas (GWL) debido a la extracción generalizada de aguas subterráneas en las cuencas fluviales transfronterizas densamente pobladas (~1.000 millones) Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (IGBM) del Asia meridional, requiere un marco sólido de predicción y comprensión. Aunque existen pocos estudios locales, todavía no se ha realizado una caracterización tridimensional a escala regional de la predicción del GWL. En este caso, la “herramienta de vectores de apoyo”, un método basado en el análisis de datos mediante computadoras, se aplica a los datos del Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) y a los datos sobre el almacenamiento de aguas subterráneas basado en modelos de terreno y en variables meteorológicas, para predecir la anomalía del GWL (GWLA) en el IGBM. El estudio tiene tres objetivos principales: (1) comprender la variabilidad espacial (ubicación de los pozos de observación) y del subsuelo (pozos de observación someros frente a profundos) en los resultados de la predicción de los datos in situ de GWLA para un gran número de pozos de observación (n = 4,791); (2) determinar su relación con la extracción de aguas subterráneas, y; (3) esbozar las ventajas y limitaciones de la utilización de los datos GRACE para predecir la GWLA. Los resultados, basados en los datos de los pozos de observación individuales, sugieren una eficiencia de predicción significativa (mediana: r > 0.71, NSE > 0.70; p < 0.05) en la mayoría de los GWLA; sin embargo, el estudio identifica puntos calientes, principalmente en las regiones de agricultura intensiva, que tienen un rendimiento del modelo relativamente pobre. Un análisis más detallado de las estadísticas de predicción de la profundidad del agua subterránea revela que el significativo predominio del bombeo en las profundidades del acuífero está vinculado al rendimiento relativamente deficiente del modelo para los pozos de observación profundos (profundidad de los filtros > 35 m) en comparación con los pozos de observación poco profundos (profundidad de los filtros < 35 m), lo que pone de relieve la limitación de GRACE para representar el bombeo a escala local dependiente del espacio y la profundidad.
摘要
在人口密集(约10亿)的印度河-恒河-布拉马普特拉河-梅克纳河(IGBM)跨界流域,由于地下水的大量抽取,地下水位(GWL)迅速下降,因此需要一个强有力的预测和理解地下水位动态的框架。尽管当地已有一些研究,但是三维区域地下水位动态特征预测研究仍有待开展。本文将支持向量机模型应用于GRACE数据和基于陆面模型的地下水储量和气象数据,对IGBM的地下水位变化(GWLA)进行预测。这项研究有三个主要目的,(1)了解大量观测井(n = 4,791)实地地下水位变化数据预测结果的空间(观测井位置)和地下(浅层和深层观测井)的变异性;(2)确定地下水位变化与地下水开采之间的关系;(3)概述用GRACE数据预测地下水位变化的优点与局限性。基于独立观测井的结果表明,在IGBM的大多数地区预测效率显著(中值统计:r > 0.71,NSE>0.70;p < 0.05),然而在农业密集地区的大多数地区,模型性能较差。对地下不同深度地下水位预测统计的深入分析表明,与浅部观测井(滤管深度<35m)相比,大量深层含水层开采与深部观测井(滤管深度>35m)的模型性能较差,因此,凸显了GRACE在表征空间和深度主导的局部尺度抽水方面的局限性。
Resumo
O rápido declínio dos níveis de água subterrânea (NAS) devido à captação generalizada de água subterrânea nas bacias hidrográficas transfronteiriças densamente povoadas (~1 bilhão) Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (IGBM) do Sul da Ásia, necessita de uma estrutura robusta de previsão e compreensão. Embora existam poucos estudos localizados, a caracterização em escala regional tridimensional da previsão de NAS ainda está para ser implementada. Aqui, ‘máquina de vetor de suporte’, um método baseado em aprendizado de máquina, é aplicado a dados do Experimento de Recuperação de Gravidade e Clima (GRACE) e dados sobre armazenamento de água subterrânea baseado em modelo de superfície terrestre e variáveis meteorológicas, para prever anomalias no NAS (ANAS) na IGBM. O estudo tem três objetivos principais, (1) compreender a variabilidade espacial (localizações de poços de observação) e de subsuperfície (poços de observação rasos vs. profundos) nos resultados de previsão para dados ANAS in-situ para um grande número de poços de observação (n = 4,791); (2) determinar sua relação com a captação de águas subterrâneas, e; (3) descrever as vantagens e limitações do uso de dados GRACE para a previsão de ANAS. Os achados, com base em resultados de poços de observação individual, sugerem eficiência de predição significativa (estatística média: r > 0.71, EPN > 0.70; p < 0.05) na maior parte do IGBM; no entanto, o estudo identifica pontos quentes, principalmente nas regiões de agricultura intensiva, com desempenho de modelo relativamente baixo. Uma análise mais aprofundada das estatísticas de previsão em profundidade de subsuperfície revela que a dominância significativa de bombeamento nas profundidades mais profundas do aquífero está ligada ao desempenho do modelo relativamente pobre para os poços de observação profundos (profundidade do filtro > 35 m) em comparação com os rasos poços de observação (profundidade do filtro < 35 m), destacando assim a limitação do GRACE em representar o bombeamento em escala local dependente da profundidade e espacial.
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Central Ground Water Board (Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation) of the Government of India and Bangladesh Water Development Board of the Government of Bangladesh for data support. The authors also acknowledge the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and Climatic Research Unit (CRU). GRACE land data were processed by Sean Swenson, supported by the NASA MEaSUREs Program. The GLDAS data used in this study were acquired as part of the mission of NASA’s Earth Science Division and archived and distributed by the Goddard Earth Sciences (GES) Data and Information Services Center (DISC). The authors are thankful to Matt Rodell of NASA and Srimanti Duttagupta IIT Kharagpur. The authors acknowledge the use of ArcGIS software (version 10.2.1), Origin software (version 2015), R statistical software, and Ferret program (Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory NOAA) for analysis.
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Malakar, P., Mukherjee, A., Bhanja, S.N. et al. Machine-learning-based regional-scale groundwater level prediction using GRACE. Hydrogeol J 29, 1027–1042 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02306-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02306-2