Abstract
Iran is among the world’s top five groundwater exploiters and, similar to many countries in the world, aquifers in Iran have been rapidly depleted over the past decades primarily as a result of groundwater use by farmers. This research was conducted to explore whether the perceptions of pistachio growers in Rafsanjan Plain, Iran (a global center for pistachio production), on the depleting groundwater resources have led to the conservation of the resources and/or income diversification. In addition, the association between these perceptions and factors representing knowledge of growers was examined. To this end, two path models were developed and tested using path analysis and logistic regression. The results indicate that growers who had more pessimistic perceptions of the groundwater resources in Rafsanjan were more likely to increase groundwater extraction; however, these growers were also more likely to seek external employment (income diversification). The final path models suggest attitudes toward groundwater conservation were the most important determinants of pumping behavior, while perceptions of the state of the groundwater were the most important determinants of income diversification. Whether Iranian policies to increase awareness of falling water tables could succeed in securing water conservation would depend on the ‘balance’ of these two forces—an increase in pumping with increased pessimism or a potential decrease in pumping through income diversification. The paper concludes with a discussion on the implications of the results for interventions aimed at changing not only the groundwater users’ decisions about groundwater use, but also their decisions about income diversification.
Résumé
L’Iran fait partie du top 5 mondial des utilisateurs d’eaux souterraines et, comme dans beaucoup de pays du monde, ses aquifères ont été rapidement épuisés durant les dernières décennies, ce qui est principalement le résultat de l’utilisation des eaux souterraines par les agriculteurs. La présente recherche a été conduite dans le but d’explorer si la perception qu’ont les producteurs de pistache de la Plaine de Rafsanjan en Iran (un centre mondial de la production de pistache) de la diminution des ressources en eaux souterraines a amené à la préservation des ressources en eaux souterraines et/ou à la diversification des revenus. En outre, la connexion entre ces perceptions et les éléments qui expriment les connaissances des agriculteurs a été examinée. A cette fin, deux modèles de cheminement ont été développés et testés en utilisant l’analyse par les pistes causales et la régression logistique. Les résultats montrent que les producteurs qui ont la perception la plus pessimiste des ressources en eaux souterraines risquaient plus d’accroître l’extraction des eaux souterraines; cependant ces producteurs étaient également les plus susceptibles de chercher un emploi extérieur (diversification des revenus). Les modèles de cheminement finaux suggèrent que l’attitude envers la conservation des eaux souterraines était le déterminant le plus important pour le comportement de pompage, tandis que la perception de l’état des eaux souterraines était le déterminant le plus important pour la diversification des revenus. Si les politiques iraniennes visant à accroître la sensibilisation à la baisse des nappes devaient réussir à garantir la conservation de l’eau, cela dépendrait de l’équilibre de ces deux forces—une augmentation du pompage avec un pessimisme accru ou une diminution potentielle du pompage grâce à la diversification des revenus. L’article se termine par une discussion à propos de l’implication des résultats sur les interventions visant un changement, non seulement de la décision des utilisateurs de l’eau concernant son utilisation mais aussi de leur décision concernant la diversification des revenus.
Resumen
El Irán está entre los cinco principales países que explotan aguas subterráneas y, al igual que muchos países del mundo, los acuíferos del Irán se han agotado rápidamente en los últimos decenios, principalmente como consecuencia del uso de aguas subterráneas por los agricultores. Esta investigación se llevó a cabo para explorar si las percepciones de los productores de pistachos de la llanura de Rafsanjan (Irán) (un centro mundial de producción de pistachos) sobre el agotamiento de los recursos de aguas subterráneas han llevado a la conservación de los recursos y/o a la modificación de los rendimientos. Además, se examinó la asociación entre esas percepciones y los factores que representan los conocimientos de los agricultores. Para ello, se desarrollaron y probaron dos modelos de trayectorias utilizando el análisis de trayectos y la regresión logística. Los resultados indican que los agricultores que tenían percepciones más pesimistas de los recursos de aguas subterráneas en Rafsanjan tenían más probabilidades de aumentar la extracción de aguas subterráneas; sin embargo, estos agricultores también tenían más probabilidades de buscar empleo externo (diversificación de los beneficios). Los modelos del trayecto final sugieren que las actitudes hacia la conservación de las aguas subterráneas fueron los determinantes más importantes del comportamiento del bombeo, mientras que las opiniones sobre el estado de las aguas subterráneas fueron los determinantes principales de la diversificación de los beneficios. El que las políticas iraníes para aumentar la conciencia de la disminución de las capas freáticas pudieran tener éxito en asegurar la conservación del agua dependería del “equilibrio” de estas dos fuerzas—un aumento del bombeo con un mayor pesimismo o una posible disminución del bombeo a través de la diversificación de los beneficios. El documento concluye con un debate sobre las consecuencias de los resultados para las intervenciones destinadas a modificar no sólo las decisiones de los usuarios de aguas subterráneas sobre su uso, sino también sus decisiones sobre la diversificación de los beneficios.
摘要
伊朗是世界前五个地下水开发利用的国家之一,与世界上许多国家一样,由于农民开采地下水,伊朗的含水层在过去几十年中迅速消耗。进行这项研究的目的是探究伊朗Rafsanjan平原(全球开心果生产中心)开心果种植者对地下水资源消耗的看法是否导致资源的保护和/或收入多元化。此外,还考察了这些看法与代表种植者知识的因素之间的联系。为此,使用路径分析和逻辑回归开发并测试了两个路径模型。结果表明,对Rafsanjan的地下水资源抱有更悲观认识的种植者更有可能增加地下水的开采。但是,这些种植者也更有可能寻找外部就业(收入多元化)。最终路径模型表明,对地下水保护的态度是开采行为的最重要决定因素,而对地下水状态的看法则是收入多元化的最重要决定因素。伊朗提高对地下水位下降认识的政策能否成功实现水保护将取决于这两种力量的“平衡”,即增加的悲观情绪导致开采量增加,或者通过收入多元化而可能减少开采量。本文最后讨论了结果对干预措施的意义,这些干预措施不仅旨在改变地下水用户对地下水开采的决定,而且还改变他们关于收入多元化的决定。
Resumo
O Irã está entre os cinco maiores usuários de águas subterrâneas do mundo e, como em muitos países do mundo, os aquíferos no Irã foram rapidamente rebaixados nas últimas décadas, principalmente pelo uso agrícola das águas subterrâneas. Esta pesquisa foi realizada para identificar se as percepções dos agricultores de pistache na planície de Rafsanjan, no Irã (centro global de produção de pistache) a respeito dos recursos hídricos subterrâneos levaram à conservação dos recursos e/ou diversificação de renda. Além disso, foi examinada a associação entre essas percepções e os fatores que representam o conhecimento dos agricultores. Para esse fim, dois modelos foram desenvolvidos e testados usando análise de caminhos e regressão logística. Os resultados indicam que os agricultores que tiveram percepções mais pessimistas dos recursos hídricos subterrâneos em Rafsanjan tinham maior probabilidade de aumentar a extração das águas subterrâneas; no entanto, esses agricultores também eram mais propensos a procurar emprego externo (diversificação de renda). Os modelos finais de caminho sugerem que as atitudes tomadas em relação à conservação das águas subterrâneas foram os principais determinantes no comportamento de bombeamento, enquanto as percepções sobre o estado das águas subterrâneas foram os determinantes mais importantes da diversificação de renda. O sucesso nas políticas iranianas para aumentar a conscientização sobre o rebaixamento dos lençóis freáticos para garantir a conservação da água dependeria do "equilíbrio" dessas duas forças—um aumento no bombeamento com maior pessimismo ou uma diminuição potencial no bombeamento pela diversificação de renda. O artigo conclui com uma discussão sobre as implicações dos resultados para intervenções destinadas a alterar não apenas as decisões dos usuários de água subterrânea sobre o uso da água subterrânea, mas também suas decisões sobre diversificação de renda.
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Acknowledgements
Helpful comments on this paper were received by Charles Perrings, Christopher Scott, and the journal editor and reviewers. Part of the questionnaire used in this study was developed in collaboration with Mohammad Reza Farzaneh and Ali Bagheri; they, along with the Iran Water Policy Research Institute, were also very helpful with the data collection. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations, including UNDP, or the UN member States.
Funding
The first author of this paper acknowledges the financial supports received from the UNDP Asia–Pacific Human Development Academic Fellowship.
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Hashemi, S.M., Kinzig, A., Abbott, J.K. et al. Exploring farmers’ perceptions about their depleting groundwater resources using path analysis: implications for groundwater overdraft and income diversification. Hydrogeol J 28, 1975–1991 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-020-02190-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-020-02190-2