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Learning Moore machines from input–output traces

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Abstract

The problem of learning automata from example traces (but no equivalence or membership queries) is fundamental in automata learning theory and practice. In this paper, we study this problem for finite-state machines with inputs and outputs, and in particular for Moore machines. We develop three algorithms for solving this problem: (1) the PTAP algorithm, which transforms a set of input–output traces into an incomplete Moore machine and then completes the machine with self-loops; (2) the PRPNI algorithm, which uses the well-known RPNI algorithm for automata learning to learn a product of automata encoding a Moore machine; and (3) the MooreMI algorithm, which directly learns a Moore machine using PTAP extended with state merging. We prove that MooreMI has the fundamental identification in the limit property. We compare the algorithms experimentally in terms of the size of the learned machine and several notions of accuracy, introduced in this paper. We also carry out a performance comparison against two existing tools (LearnLib and flexfringe). Finally, we compare with OSTIA, an algorithm that learns a more general class of transducers and find that OSTIA generally does not learn a Moore machine, even when fed with a characteristic sample.

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Notes

  1. The term smallest automaton is used in the exact identification problem, instead of the more well-known term minimal automaton. Among equivalent machines, one with the fewest states is called minimal. Among machines which are all consistent with a set of traces but not necessarily equivalent, one with the fewest states is called smallest.

  2. We have implemented the k-tails algorithm and applied it on the characteristic sample for the Moore machine in Fig. 5a, described in Sect. 4.1. Using \(k = 0\), we get a non-deterministic machine of three states. Using any \(k > 0\), we get a deterministic machine of eight states. This excessive number of states is due to the way the k-tails equivalence relation is defined. In particular, in order for two input words to be considered equivalent, they must have successors in the training set with the same letters. This implies that a word with no successors in the training set can never be equivalent with a word with some successors, even if both words represent the same state in the target machine.

  3. Note that there are generally different kinds of characteristic samples for different learners [13]. In this paper, our definition of the characteristic sample is designed with our MooreMI algorithm in mind, which is the natural extension for Moore machines of the RPNI algorithm.

  4. https://sourceforge.net/projects/jhotdraw/.

  5. https://jakarta.apache.org/.

  6. The diameter of M is the smallest number of transitions needed to reach any state of M starting from the initial state.

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  1. United Technologies Research Centre Ireland, Cork, Ireland

    Georgios Giantamidis & Stylianos Basagiannis

  2. Aalto University, Otaniemi, Finland

    Georgios Giantamidis

  3. Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA

    Stavros Tripakis

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  1. Georgios Giantamidis
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This work was partially supported by the Academy of Finland and the U.S. National Science Foundation (Awards #1329759 and #1139138). This work was partially supported by the Irish Development Agency (IDA) for UTRC Ireland related to Network of Excellence in Aerospace Cyber Physical Systems.

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Giantamidis, G., Tripakis, S. & Basagiannis, S. Learning Moore machines from input–output traces. Int J Softw Tools Technol Transfer 23, 1–29 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10009-019-00544-0

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