References
Laor T, Jaramillo D, Hoffer FA, Kasser JR (1996) MR imaging in congenital lower limb deformities. Pediatr Radiol 26:381–387
O’Rahilly R (1951) Morphological patterns in limb deficiencies and duplications. Am J Anat 89:135–193
Frantz CH, O’Rahilly R (1961) Congenital limb deficiencies. J Bone Jt Surg Am 43-A:1202–1224
Hamanishi C (1980) Congenital short femur. Clinical, genetic and epidemiological comparison of the naturally occurring condition with that caused by thalidomide. J Bone Jt Surg Br 62:307–320
Herring C, Cummings DR (1996) The limb deficient child. In: Morrissy RT, Cummings DR (eds) Pediatrics orthopaedics. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 1137–1176
Gillespie R, Torode IP (1983) Classification and management of congenital abnormalities of the femur. J Bone Jt Surg Br 65:557–568
Anton CG, Applegate KE, Kuivila TE, Wilkes DC (1999) Proximal femoral focal deficiency (PFFD): more than an abnormal hip. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 3:215–226
Boden SD, Fallon MD, Davidson R, Mennuti MT, Kaplan FS (1989) Proximal femoral focal deficiency. Evidence for a defect in proliferation and maturation of chondrocytes. J Bone Jt Surg Am 71:1119–1129
Grissom LE, Harcke HT (1994) Sonography in congenital deficiency of the femur. J Pediatr Orthop 14:29–33
Laor T, Burrows PE (1998) Congenital anomalies and vascular birthmarks of the lower extremities. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 6:497–519
Pirani S, Beauchamp RD, Li D, Sawatzky B (1991) Soft tissue anatomy of proximal femoral focal deficiency. J Pediatr Orthop 11:563–570
VanNes (1950) Rotation-plasty for congenital defects of the femur: making use of the ankle of the shortened limb to control the knee joint of a prosthesis. J Bone Jt Surg 32-B:12–16
Achterman C, Kalamchi A (1979) Congenital deficiency of the fibula. J Bone Jt Surg Br 61-B:133–137
Fordham LA, Applegate KE, Wilkes DC, Chung CJ (1999) Fibular hemimelia: more than just an absent bone. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 3:227–238
Westin GW, Sakai DN, Wood WL (1976) Congenital longitudinal deficiency of the fibula: follow-up of treatment by Syme amputation. J Bone Jt Surg Am 58:492–496
Caskey PM, Lester EL (2002) Association of fibular hemimelia and clubfoot. J Pediatr Orthop 22:522–525
Jones D, Barnes J, Lloyd-Roberts GC (1978) Congenital aplasia and dysplasia of the tibia with intact fibula. Classification and management. J Bone Jt Surg Br 60:31–39
Grissom LE, Harcke HT, Kumar SJ (1990) Sonography in the management of tibial hemimelia. Clin Orthop Relat Res 251:266–270
Bayne LG, Klug MS (1987) Long-term review of the surgical treatment of radial deficiencies. J Hand Surg [Am] 12:169–179
Van H (1996) Congenital disorders of the hand and upper extremity. Pediatr Clin North Am 43:1113–1133
Goldberg MJ, Bartoshesky LE (1985) Congenital hand anomaly: etiology and associated malformations. Hand Clin 1:405–415
Askins (1988) Congenital constriction band syndrome. J Pediatr Orthop 8:461–466
Fisher RM, Cremin BJ (1976) Limb defects in the amniotic band syndrome. Pediatr Radiol 5:24–29
Hall JG (1981) An approach to congenital contractures (arthrogryposis). Pediatr Ann 10:15–26
Hall JG (1989) Arthrogryposis. Am Fam Phys 39:113–119
Swinyard CA, Bleck EE (1985) The etiology of arthrogryposis (multiple congenital contracture). Clin Orthop Relat Res 194:15–29
Shapiro F, Specht L (1993) The diagnosis and orthopaedic treatment of childhood spinal muscular atrophy, peripheral neuropathy, Friedreich ataxia, and arthrogryposis. J Bone Jt Surg Am 75:1699–1714
Pachuda NM, Lasday SD, Jay RM (1990) Tarsal coalition: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. J Foot Surg 29:474–488
Cowell HR (1982) Tarsal coalition—review and update. Instr Course Lect 31:264–271
Leonard MA (1974) The inheritance of tarsal coalition and its relationship to spastic flat foot. J Bone Jt Surg Br 56B:520–526
Harris RI (1965) Retrospect—peroneal spastic flat foot (rigid valgus foot). J Bone Jt Surg Am 47:1657–1667
Emery KH, Bisset GS 3rd, Johnson ND, Nunan PJ (1998) Tarsal coalition: a blinded comparison of MRI and CT. Pediatr Radiol 28:612–616
Poznanski AK (1984) The hand in radiologic diagnosis, 2nd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 204–208
Smith JG, Weiss AP, Weiss YS (1998) Congenital anomalies of the hand. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 37:459–467
Letts M, Davidson D, Beaule P (1999) Symphalangism in children. Case report and review of the literature. Clin Orthop Relat Res 366:178–185
Sachar K, Akelman E, Ehrlich MG (1994) Radioulnar synostosis. Hand Clin 10:399–404
Sachar K, Mih AD (1998) Congenital radial head dislocations. Hand Clin 14:39–47
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Dr. Laor has indicated that she has no relevant financial relationships or potential conflicts of interest related to the material to be presented.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Laor, T. Musculoskeletal imaging: evaluation of congenital anomalies. Pediatr Radiol 38 (Suppl 2), 246–250 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-008-0775-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-008-0775-3