References
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs (1992) Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Pediatrics 89:1110–1115
American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Anesthesiology (1999) Guidelines for the pediatric perioperative anesthesia environment. Pediatrics 103:512
Keeter S, Benator RM, Weinberg SM et al (1990) Sedation in pediatric CT: national survey of current practice. Radiology 175:745–752
American Society of Anesthesia (1994) Guidelines for nonoperating room anesthetizing locations (Approved by House of Delegates on October 19 1994, and last amended in October 15, 2003) http://www.asahq.org/publicationsAndServices/standards/14.pdf
Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organization (2001) Anesthesia and Sedation. Joint Commission Resources, Oakbrook Terrace
Ferrer-Brechner T, Winter J (1977) Anesthetic considerations for cerebral computer tomography. Anesth Analg 56:344–347
Greenberg SB, Faerber EN, Aspinall CL et al (1993) High-dose chloral hydrate sedation for children undergoing MR imaging: safety and efficacy in relation to age. AJR Am J Roentgenol 161:639–641
Greenberg SB, Faerber EN, Aspinall CL (1991) High dose chloral hydrate sedation for children undergoing CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 15:467–469
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs and Committee on Environmental Health (1993) Use of chloral hydrate for sedation in children. Pediatrics 92:471–473
Thompson JR, Schneider S, Ashwal S et al (1982) The choice of sedation for computed tomography in children: a prospective evaluation. Radiology 143:475–479
Napoli KL, Ingall CG, Martin GR (1996) Safety and efficacy of chloral hydrate sedation in children undergoing echocardiography. J Pediatr 129:287–291
Ronchera-Oms CL, Casillas C, Marti-Bonmati L et al (1994) Oral chloral hydrate provides effective and safe sedation in paediatric magnetic resonance imaging. J Clin Pharm Ther 19:239–243
Chung T, Hoffer FA, Connor L et al (2000) The use of oral pentobarbital sodium (Nembutal) versus oral chloral hydrate in infants undergoing CT and MR imaging–a pilot study. Pediatr Radiol 30:332–335
Mason KP, Sanborn P, Zurakowski D et al (2004) Superiority of pentobarbital versus chloral hydrate for sedation in infants during imaging. Radiology 230:537–542
Mason KP, Zurakowski D, Connor L et al (2004) Infant sedation for MR imaging and CT: oral versus intravenous pentobarbital. Radiology 233:723–728
Scheinin H, Aantaa R, Anttila M et al (1998) Reversal of the sedative and sympatholytic effects of dexmedetomidine with a specific alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist atipamezole: a pharmacodynamic and kinetic study in healthy volunteers. Anesthesiology 89:574–584
Belleville JP, Ward DS, Bloor BC et al (1992) Effects of intravenous dexmedetomidine in humans. I. Sedation, ventilation, and metabolic rate. Anesthesiology 77:1125–1133
Ingersoll-Weng E, Manecke GR Jr, Thistlethwaite PA (2004) Dexmedetomidine and cardiac arrest. Anesthesiology 100:738–739
Berkenbosch JW, Tobias JD (2003) Development of bradycardia during sedation with dexmedetomidine in an infant concurrently receiving digoxin. Pediatr Crit Care Med 4:203–205
Venn RM, Bradshaw CJ, Spencer R et al (1999) Preliminary UK experience of dexmedetomidine, a novel agent for postoperative sedation in the intensive care unit. Anaesthesia 54:1136–1142
Hall JE, Uhrich TD, Barney JA et al (2000) Sedative, amnestic, and analgesic properties of small-dose dexmedetomidine infusions. Anesth Analg 90:699–705
De Wolf AM, Fragen RJ, Avram MJ et al (2001) The pharmacokinetics of dexmedetomidine in volunteers with severe renal impairment. Anesth Analg 93:1205–1209
Dyck JB, Maze M, Haack C et al (1993) The pharmacokinetics and hemodynamic effects of intravenous and intramuscular dexmedetomidine hydrochloride in adult human volunteers. Anesthesiology 78:813–820
Talke P, Lobo E, Brown R (2003) Systemically administered alpha2-agonist-induced peripheral vasoconstriction in humans. Anesthesiology 99:65–70
Talke P, Richardson CA, Scheinin M et al (1997) Postoperative pharmacokinetics and sympatholytic effects of dexmedetomidine. Anesth Analg 85:1136–1142
Tobias JD, Berkenbosch JW (2004) Sedation during mechanical ventilation in infants and children: dexmedetomidine versus midazolam. South Med J 97:451–455
Finkel JC, Elrefai A (2004) The use of dexmedetomidine to facilitate opioid and benzodiazepine detoxification in an infant. Anesth Analg 98:1658–1659
Mason KP, Zurakowski D, Zgleszewski SE et al (2007) High dose dexmedetomidine as the sole sedative for pediatric MRI. Paediatr Anaesth (in press)
Mason KP, Zgleszewski SE, Prescilla R et al (2007) Hemodynamic effects of dexmedetomidine sedation for CT imaging studies. Paediatr Anaesth (in press)
Ramsay MA, Savege TM, Simpson BR et al (1974) Controlled sedation with alphaxalone-alphadolone. Br Med J 2:656–659
Mason KP, Zgleszewski SE, Dearden JL Dexmedetomidine for pediatric sedation for CT imaging studies. Anesth Analg (in press)
Jackson KC, Wohlt P, Fine PG (2006) DexmedetomidineA novel analgesic with palliative medicine potential. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 20:23–27
Bamgbade OA (2006) Dexmedetomidine for peri-operative sedation and analgesia in alcohol addiction. Anaesthesia 61:299–300
Rich JM (2005) Dexmedetomidine as a sole sedating agent with local anesthesia in a high-risk patient for axillofemoral bypass graft: a case report. Aana J 73:357–360
Dachs RJ, Innes GM (1997) Intravenous ketamine sedation of pediatric patients in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 29:146–150
Kirberg A, Sagredo R, Montalva G et al (2005) Ketamine for pediatric endoscopic procedures and as a sedation complement for adult patients. Gastrointest Endosc 61:501–502
Marx CM, Stein J, Tyler MK et al (1997) Ketamine-midazolam versus meperidine-midazolam for painful procedures in pediatric oncology patients. J Clin Oncol 15:94–102
Roelofse JA, Joubert JJ, Roelofse PG (1996) A double-blind randomized comparison of midazolam alone and midazolam combined with ketamine for sedation of pediatric dental patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 54:838–844 discussion 45, 46
Bennett JA, Bullimore JA (1973) The use of ketamine hydrochloride anaesthesia for radiotherapy in young children. Br J Anaesth 45:197–201
Cotsen MR, Donaldson JS, Uejima T et al (1997) Efficacy of ketamine hydrochloride sedation in children for interventional radiologic procedures. AJR Am J Roentgenol 169:1019–1022
White PF (1998) Ketamine update: its clinical uses in anesthesia. Semin Anesthesia 7:113–126
Way WL, Trevor AJ (1986) Pharmacology of intravenous nonnarcotic anesthetics, 2nd edn. Churchill Livingstone, Oxford, UK, pp 813–817
Drummond GB (1996) Comparison of sedation with midazolam and ketamine: effects on airway muscle activity. Br J Anaesth 76:663–667
Fine J, Finestone SC (1973) Sensory disturbances following ketamine anesthesia: recurrent hallucinations. Anesth Analg 52:428–430
Meyers EF, Charles P (1978) Prolonged adverse reactions to ketamine in children. Anesthesiology 49:39–40
Sherwin TS, Green SM, Khan A et al (2000) Does adjunctive midazolam reduce recovery agitation after ketamine sedation for pediatric procedures? A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med 35:229–238
Wathen JE, Roback MG, Mackenzie T et al (2000) Does midazolam alter the clinical effects of intravenous ketamine sedation in children? A double-blind, randomized, controlled, emergency department trial. Ann Emerg Med 36:579–588
Hollister GR, Burn JM (1974) Side effects of ketamine in pediatric anesthesia. Anesth Analg 53:264–267
Green SM, Johnson NE (1990) Ketamine sedation for pediatric procedures: Part 2, Review and implications. Ann Emerg Med 19:1033–1046
Sussman DR (1974) A comparative evaluation of ketamine anesthesia in children and adults. Anesthesiology 40:459–464
Green SM, Rothrock SG, Lynch EL et al (1998) Intramuscular ketamine for pediatric sedation in the emergency department: safety profile in 1,022 cases. Ann Emerg Med 31:688–697
Mason KP, Michna E, DiNardo JA et al (2002) Evolution of a protocol for ketamine-induced sedation as an alternative to general anesthesia for interventional radiologic procedures in pediatric patients. Radiology 225:457–465
Sanborn PA, Michna E, Zurakowski D et al (2005) Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events during sedation of pediatric patients for imaging examinations. Radiology 237:288–294
Cote CJ, Karl HW, Notterman DA et al (2000) Adverse sedation events in pediatrics: analysis of medications used for sedation. Pediatrics 106:633–644
Cote CJ, Notterman DA, Karl HW et al (2000) Adverse sedation events in pediatrics: a critical incident analysis of contributing factors. Pediatrics 105:805–814
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Dr. Mason has indicated that she has no relevant financial relationships or potential conflicts of interest related to the material to be presented.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mason, K.P. The pediatric sedation service: who is appropriate to sedate, which medications should I use, who should prescribe the drugs, how do I bill?. Pediatr Radiol 38 (Suppl 2), 218–224 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-008-0769-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-008-0769-1