Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Influence of cambial age on the bark structure of Douglas-fir

  • Original
  • Published:
Wood Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is a valuable conifer timber species. It has a thick bark with a high proportion of cork in the rhytidome that allows considering its recovery. This study focuses on the characterization of the bark features and their variation with cambial age along the stem using samples of 20 trees from two sites in Portugal at harvest for the sawmilling industry. The morphology and anatomical features of bark were examined including a detailed analysis of the arrangement of tissues, cell biometry, tissue proportion of the phloem, and the development of the rhytidome. Bark structure varied within the tree with cambial age at various height levels, and differences concerned mostly the rhytidome and periderm development, tissue morphology and disarray in the non-conducting phloem. A relationship between cell dimension, proportion of tissues in the phloem and age was observed; the effect of stem height position was statistically significant for sieve cell length, fiber–sclereid length and wall thickness with a decrease from the base to the top. The rhytidome thickness increased with cambial age: At the stem base (45–50 years of cambial age), the bark includes a rhytidome of about 3 cm thickness corresponding to 84% of the bark, with 5–8 periderms, containing nearly 50% of cork. The cork cells were thin-walled and oriented in radial rows, and the occurrence of thick-walled lignified cells was associated with the increments of the phellem layer. In the youngest periderm, the occurrence of phellem cells with empty lumens and thin suberized walls started at 25–30 years of cambial age. The results show that trees with 45–50 years of age and their logs up to 5 m of height may be suitable for bark and cork exploitation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Angyalossy V, Pace MR, Evert RF, Marcati CR, Oskolski AA, Terrazas T, Kotina E, Lens F, Mazzoni-Viveiros SC, Angeles G et al (2016) IAWA list of microscopic bark features. IAWA J 37:517–615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baptista I, Miranda I, Quilhó T, Gominho J, Pereira H (2013) Characterisation and fractioning of Tectona grandis bark in view of its valorisation as a biorefinery raw-material. Ind Crops Prod 50:166–175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barbosa ACF, Marcelo RP, Witovisk L, Angyalossy V (2010) A new method to obtain good anatomical slides of heterogeneous plant parts. IAWA J 31:373–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso S, Pereira H (2017) Characterization of Douglas-fir grown in Portugal: heartwood, sapwood, bark, ring width and taper. Eur J For Res 136:597–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso S, Ferreira J, Quilhó T, Pereira H (2017) Cork of Douglas-fir bark: impact of structural and anatomical features on usage. Ind Crops Prod 99:135–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang YP (1954) Bark structure of North American conifer. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Da Ronch F, Caudullo G, de Rigo D (2016) Pseudotsuga menziesii in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz J, de Rigo D, Caudullo G, Houston Durrant T, Mauri A (eds) European atlas of forest tree species. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, pp 146–147

    Google Scholar 

  • den Outer RW (1967) Histological investigation of secondary phloem of gymnosperms. H. Veenman & Zonen NV, Wageningen

    Google Scholar 

  • Dougal EF (1981) Ultrastructure of parenchyma and sclereids in Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] bark. Dissertation, Oregon State University

  • Einspahr DW, Harder ML, Parham RA (1978) Bark and wood properties of pulpwood species as related to separation and segregation of chip/bark mixtures. Project 3212, report ten : a progress report to members of the Institute of Paper Chemistry. Institute of Paper Chemistry, pp 1–113

  • Evert RF (2006) Esau’s plant anatomy: meristems, cells, and tissues of the plant body: their structure, function, and development. Wiley, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira JPA, Miranda I, Gominho J, Pereira H (2015) Selective fractioning of Pseudotsuga menziesii bark and chemical characterization in view of an integrated valorization. Ind Crops Prod 74:998–1007

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira J, Miranda I, Gominho J, Pereira H (2016) Chemical characterization of cork and phloem from Douglas fir outer bark. Holzforschung 70:475–483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira JPA, Quilhó T, Pereira H (2017) Characterization of Betula pendula outer bark regarding cork and phloem components at chemical and structural levels in view of biorefinery integration. J Wood Chem Technol 37:10–25

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fromm J (2013) Xylem development in trees: from cambial divisions to mature wood cells. In: Fromm J (ed) Cellular aspects of wood formation. Springer, Berlin, pp 3–39

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gartner BL (1996) Does photosynthetic bark have a role in the production of core vs. outer wood? Wood Fiber Sci 28:53–61

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghouse AKM, Iqbal M (1977) Trends of size variation in phloem fibres and sieve-tube cells within the bark of some arid-zone trees. Flora 166:517–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gricar J, Jagodic S, Prislan P (2015) Structure and subsequent seasonal changes in the bark of sessile oak (Quercus petraea). Trees 29:747–757

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grillos SJ (1956) Structure and development of the bark of Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco. Dissertation, Oregon State College

  • Grillos SJ, Smith FH (1959) The secondary phloem of Douglas-fir. For Sci 5:377–388

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall JA (1971) Utilization of Douglas-fir bark. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland

    Google Scholar 

  • Hergert HL, Kurth EF (1952) The chemical nature of the cork from Douglas-fir bark. TAPPI 35:59–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iqbal M, Ghouse AKM (1983) An analytical study on cell size variation in some arid zone trees of India: Acacia Nilotica and Prosopis Spicigera. IAWA J 4:46–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junikka L (1994) Survey of English macroscopic bark terminology. IAWA J 15:3–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krahmer R, Wellons J (1973) Some anatomical and chemical characteristics of Douglas-fir cork. Wood Sci 6:97–105

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurth EF (1953) Chemicals from Douglas-fir bark. Oregon Forest Products Laboratory, Corvallis

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurth EF, Kiefer HJ (1950) Wax from Douglas-fir bark. TAPPI 33:183–186

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larson PR (1994) The vascular cambium, development and structure. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Le Normand M, Moriana R, Ek M (2014) Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from spruce bark in a biorefinery perspective. Carbohydr Polym 111:979–987

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leite C, Pereira H (2017) Cork-containing barks—a review. Front Mater 3:63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litvay JD (1976) Anatomical and chemical characteristics of the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb.) Franko) phellem cell. Dissertation, Oregon State University

  • Litvay JD, Krahmer RL (1977) Wall layering in Douglas-fir cork cells. Wood Sci 9:167–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Miranda I, Gominho J, Mirra I, Pereira H (2012) Chemical characterization of barks from Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris after fractioning into different particle sizes. Ind Crops Prod 36:395–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda I, Gominho J, Mirra I, Pereira H (2013a) Fractioning and chemical characterization of barks of Betula pendula and Eucalyptus globulus. Ind Crops Prod 41:299–305

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda I, Gominho J, Pereira H (2013b) Cellular structure and chemical composition of cork from the Chinese cork oak (Quercus variabilis). J Wood Sci 59:1–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris H, Jansen S (2016) Bark. Yearbook 2016. International Dendrology Society, Mexico, pp 51–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Mota GS, Sartori CJ, Ferreira J, Miranda I, Quilhó T, Mori FA, Pereira H (2016) Cellular structure and chemical composition of cork from Plathymenia reticulata occurring in the Brazilian Cerrado. Ind Crops Prod 90:65–75

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nunes E, Quilhó T, Pereira H (1999) Anatomy and chemical composition of Pinus pinea L. bark. Ann Sci 56:479–484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parameswaran N (1980) Some remarks on the nomenclature of fibres, sclereids and fibre–sclereids in the secondary phloem of trees. IAWA J 1:130–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel RN (1975) Bark anatomy of radiata pine, corsican pine, and Douglas fir grown in New Zealand. N Z J Bot 13:149–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira H (2007) Cork: biology, production and uses. Elsevier Publications, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira H (2015) The rationale behind cork properties: a review of structure and chemistry. BioResources 10:6095–6206

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira H, Knapic S (2017) Bark and cork. In: Performance of bio-based building materials. Elsevier Publications, Amsterdam, pp 78–96

  • Pereira H, Miranda I, Tavares F, Gominho J, Quilhó T, Graça J, Rodrigues JC, Shatalov A, Knapic S (2010) Qualidade e utilização tecnológica do eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus) [Quality and technological use of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)]. Centro de Estudos Florestais, Lisboa, p 377 (in Portuguese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinto PCRO, Sousa AF, Silvestre AJD, Neto CP, Gandini A, Eckerman C, Holmbom B (2009) Quercus suber and Betula pendula outer barks as renewable sources of oleochemicals: a comparative study. Ind Crops Prod 29:126–132

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quilhó T, Pereira H, Richter HG (1999) Variability of bark structure in plantation-grown Eucalyptus globulus. IAWA J 20:171–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quilhó T, Pereira H, Richter HG (2000) Within-tree variation in phloem cell dimensions and proportions in Eucalyptus globulus. IAWA J 21:31–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quilhó T, Sousa V, Tavares F, Pereira H (2013) Bark anatomy and cell size variation in Quercus faginea. Turk J Bot 37:561–570

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridoutt BG, Sands R (1993) Within-tree variation in cambial anatomy and xylem cell differentiation in Eucalyptus globulus. Trees 8:18–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross WD, Corden ME (1973) Microscopic and histochemical changes in Douglas fir bark: accompanying fungal invasion. Wood Fiber Sci 5:129–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross WD, Corden ME (1974) Selective degradation of lignin and condensed tannins of Douglas-fir bark sclereids by fungi. Wood Fiber Sci 6:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross WD, Krahmer RL (1971) Some sources of variation in structural characteristics of Douglas-fir bark. Wood Fiber Sci 3:35–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Şen A, Miranda I, Santos S, Graça J, Pereira H (2010) The chemical composition of cork and phloem in the rhytidome of Quercus cerris bark. Ind Crops Prod 31:417–422

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Şen A, Quilhó T, Pereira H (2011) Bark anatomy of Quercus cerris L. var. cerris from Turkey. Turk J Bot 35:45–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Trockenbrodt M (1994) Quantitative changes of some anatomical characters during bark development in Quercus robur, Ulmus glabra, Populus tremula and Betula pendula. IAWA J 15:387–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas (ICNF) for helping in tree selection and the sawmills Albano Leite da Silva, LDA and VilaMadeiras - Comércio de Madeiras, LDA, for allowing the sampling at the time of tree harvest. Centro de Estudos Florestais (CEF) is a research unit funded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) (AGR/UID00239/2013). The first author acknowledges a FCT doctoral fellowship (PD/BD/52404/2013) under the Sustainable Forests and Products (SUSFOR) doctoral program.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

    Sofia Cardoso, Teresa Quilhó & Helena Pereira

Authors
  1. Sofia Cardoso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Teresa Quilhó
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Helena Pereira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sofia Cardoso.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cardoso, S., Quilhó, T. & Pereira, H. Influence of cambial age on the bark structure of Douglas-fir. Wood Sci Technol 53, 191–210 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-018-1055-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-018-1055-5

Search

Navigation