Abstract
Background
Drugs are typically used in social settings. Here, we consider two factors that may contribute to this observation: (i) the presence of other people may enhance the positive mood effects of a drug, and conversely, (ii) drugs may enhance the value of social stimuli.
Methods
We review evidence from controlled laboratory studies with human volunteers, which investigated either of these interactions between social factors and responses to drugs. We examine the bidirectional effects of social stimuli and single doses of alcohol, stimulants, opioids, and cannabis.
Results
All four classes of drugs interact with social contexts, but the nature of these interactions varies across drugs, and depends on whether the context is positive or negative.
Conclusions
Alcohol and stimulant drugs enhance the attractiveness of social stimuli and the desire to socialize, and social contexts, in turn, enhance these drugs’ effects. In contrast, opioids and cannabis have subtler effects on social interactions and their effects are less influenced by the presence of others. Overall, there is stronger evidence that drugs enhance positive social contexts than that they dampen the negativity of unpleasant social settings. Controlled research is needed to understand the interactions between drugs of abuse and social contexts, to model and understand the determinants of drug use outside the laboratory.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
aan het Rot M, Russell JJ, Moskowitz DS, Young SN (2008) Alcohol in a social context: findings from event-contingent recording studies of everyday social interactions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 32(3):459–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00590.x
Attwood AS, Penton-Voak IS, Goodwin C, Munafò MR (2012) Effects of acute nicotine and alcohol on the rating of attractiveness in social smokers and alcohol drinkers. Drug Alcohol Depend 125(1–2):43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.03.014
Babor TF, Meyer RE, Mirin SM, McNamee HB, Davies M (1976) Behavioral and social effects of heroin self-administration and withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33(3):363–367 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1259525
Baggott MJ, Kirkpatrick MG, Bedi G, de Wit H (2015) Intimate insight: MDMA changes how people talk about significant others. J Psychopharmacol 29(6):669–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881115581962
Bardo MT, Klebaur JE, Valone JM, Deaton C (2001) Environmental enrichment decreases intravenous self-administration of amphetamine in female and male rats. Psychopharmacology 155(3):278–284 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11432690
Bardo MT, Neisewander JL, Kelly TH (2013) Individual differences and social influences on the neurobehavioral pharmacology of abused drugs. Pharmacol Rev 65(1):255–290. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.111.005124
Bartholow BD, Henry EA, Lust SA, Saults JS, Wood PK (2012) Alcohol effects on performance monitoring and adjustment: affect modulation and impairment of evaluative cognitive control. J Abnorm Psychol 121(1):173–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023664
Beck KJ, Ahmed A, Farkas ZA (2011) A descriptive analysis of the social context of drinking among first-time DUI offenders. Traffic Inj Prev 2011(12):306–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2011.564693
Bedi G, Phan KL, Angstadt M, de Wit H (2009) Effects of MDMA on sociability and neural response to social threat and social reward. Psychopharmacology 207(1):73–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1635-z
Bedi G, Hyman D, de Wit H (2010) Is ecstasy an "empathogen"? Effects of ±3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on prosocial feelings and identification of emotional states in others. Biol Psychiatry 68(12):1134–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.003
Bedi G, Cecchi GA, Slezak DF, Carrillo F, Sigman M, de Wit H (2014) A window into the intoxicated mind? Speech as an index of psychoactive drug effects. Neuropsychopharmacology 39(10):2340–2348. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.80
Bershad AK, Kirkpatrick MG, Seiden JA, de Wit H (2015) Effects of acute doses of prosocial drugs methamphetamine and alcohol on plasma oxytocin levels. J Clin Psychopharmacol 35(3):308–312. https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000314
Bershad AK, Miller MA, Baggott MJ, de Wit H (2016) The effects of MDMA on socio-emotional processing: does MDMA differ from other stimulants? J Psychopharmacol 30(12):1248–1258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116663120
Bershad AK, Ruiz NA, de Wit H (2017) Effects of buprenorphine on responses to emotional stimuli in individuals with a range of mood symptomatology. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 21:120–127. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyx077
Bouso JC, Doblin R, Farré M, Alcázar MA, Gómez-Jarabo G (2008) MDMA-assisted psychotherapy using low doses in a small sample of women with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychoactive Drugs 40(3):225–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2008.10400637
Bozarth MA, Murray A, Wise RA (1989) Influence of housing conditions on the acquisition of intravenous heroin and cocaine self-administration in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 33(4):903–907 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2616610
Bradford DE, Shapiro BL, Curtin JJ (2013) How bad could it be? Alcohol dampens stress responses to threat of uncertain intensity. Psychol Sci 24(12):2541–2549. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613499923
Buffum J, Moser C (1986) MDMA and human sexual function. J Psychoactive Drugs 18(4):355–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1986.10472369
Cappell H, Herman CP (1972) Alcohol and tension reduction. A review. Q J Stud Alcohol 33(1):33–64 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4551021
Caudill BD, Marlatt GA (1975) Modeling influences in social drinking: an experimental analogue. J Consult Clin Psychol 43(3):405–415 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1159130
Chance MRA (1946) Aggregation as a factor influencing the toxicity of sympathomimetic amines in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 87:214–219 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20994723
Chelnokova O, Laeng B, Eikemo M, Riegels J, Løseth G, Maurud H et al (2014) Rewards of beauty: the opioid system mediates social motivation in humans. Mol Psychiatry 19:746–747
Chelnokova O, Laeng B, Løseth G, Eikemo M, Willoch F, Leknes S (2016) The μ-opioid system promotes visual attention to faces and eyes. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 11:1902–1909
Childs E, Bershad AK, de Wit H (2016) Effects of d-amphetamine upon psychosocial stress responses. J Psychopharmacol 30(7):608–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116650388
Childs E, Lutz JA, de Wit H (2017) Dose-related effects of delta-9-THC on emotional responses to acute psychosocial stress. Drug Alcohol Depend 177:136–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.030
Clark DB, Sayette MA (1993) Anxiety and the development of alcoholism: clinical and scientific issues. Am J Addict 2:59–76
Collins RL, Marlatt GA (1981) Social modeling as a determinant of drinking behavior: implications for prevention and treatment. Addict Behav 6(3):233–239 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7293846
Cooper AM, Waterhouse GJ, Sobell MB (1979) Influence of gender on drinking in a modeling situation. J Stud Alcohol 40(7):562–570. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1979.40.562
de Wit H, Clark M, Brauer LH (1987) Effects of d-amphetamine in grouped versus isolated humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 57(1–2):333–340 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9164591
DeMartini KS, Carey KB (2011) The role of anxiety sensitivity and drinking motives in predicting alcohol use: a critical review. Clin Psychol Rev 31(1):169–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.10.001
Depue R, Morrone-strupinsky J (2005) A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Behav Brain Sci 28(3):313–350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000063
Dimoff JD, Sayette MA (2017) The case for investigating social context in laboratory studies of smoking. Addiction 112(3):388–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13503
Dolder PC, Holze F, Liakoni E, Harder S, Schmid Y, Liechti ME (2017) Alcohol acutely enhances decoding of positive emotions and emotional concern for positive stimuli and facilitates the viewing of sexual images. Psychopharmacology 234(1):41–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4431-6
Doty P, de Wit H (1995) Effect of setting on the reinforcing and subjective effects of ethanol in social drinkers. Psychopharmacology 118(1):19–27 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7597118
Eitan S, Emery MA, Bates MLS, Horrax C (2017) Opioid addiction: who are your real friends? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 83:697–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.017
Fairbairn CE (2017) Drinking among strangers: a meta-analysis examining familiarity as a moderator of alcohol’s rewarding effects. Psychol Addict Behav 31(3):255–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000264
Fairbairn CE, Sayette MA (2014) A social-attributional analysis of alcohol response. Psychol Bull 140(5):1361–1382. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037563
Fairbairn CE, Sayette MA, Aalen OO, Frigessi A (2015a) Alcohol and emotional contagion: an examination of the spreading of smiles in male and female drinking groups. Clin Psychol Sci 3(5):686–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614548892
Fairbairn CE, Sayette MA, Amole MC, Dimoff JD, Cohn JF, Girard JM (2015b) Speech volume indexes sex differences in the social-emotional effects of alcohol. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 23(4):255–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000021
Fairbairn CE, Sayette MA, Wright AGC, Levine JM, Cohn JF, Creswell KG (2015c) Extraversion and the rewarding effects of alcohol in a social context. J Abnorm Psychol 124(3):660–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000024
Fareri DS, Delgado MR (2014) Social rewards and social networks in the human brain. Neuroscientist 20(4):387–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858414521869
Foltin RW, Fischman MW (1988) Effects of smoked marijuana on human social behavior in small groups. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 30(2):539–541 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3174786
Foltin RW, Brady JV, Fischman MW, Emurian CS, Dominitz J (1987) Effects of smoked marijuana on social interaction in small groups. Drug Alcohol Depend 20(1):87–93 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3678046
Frye CG, Wardle MC, Norman GJ, de Wit H (2014) MDMA decreases the effects of simulated social rejection. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 117:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2013.11.030
Gospic K, Gunnarsson T, Fransson P, Ingvar M, Lindefors N, Petrovic P (2008) Emotional perception modulated by an opioid and a cholecystokinin agonist. Psychopharmacology 197:295–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-1032-4
Greer G, Tolbert R (1986) Subjective reports of the effects of MDMA in a clinical setting. J Psychoactive Drugs 18(4):319–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1986.10472364
Griffiths RR, Stitzer M, Corker K, Bigelow G, Liebson I (1977) Drug-produced changes in human social behavior: facilitation by d-amphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 7(4):365–372 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/928495
Hall AP, Lyburn ID, Spears FD, Riley B (1996) An unusual case of ecstasy poisoning. Intensive Care Med 22(7):670–671 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8844232
Harris DS, Baggott M, Mendelson JH, Mendelson JE, Jones RT (2002) Subjective and hormonal effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology 162(4):396–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1131-1
Heilig M, Epstein DH, Nader MA, Shaham Y (2016) Time to connect: bringing social context into addiction neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci 17(9):592–599. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.67
Higgins ST, Stitzer ML (1986) Acute marijuana effects on social conversation. Psychopharmacology 89(2):234–238 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3088642
Higgins ST, Stitzer ML (1989) Monologue speech: effects of d-amphetamine, secobarbital and diazepam. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 34(3):609–618 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2623018
Hill MN, Campolongo P, Yehuda R, Patel S (2018) Integrating endocannabinoid signaling and cannabinoids into the biology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 43:80–102. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.162
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Schillinger N, Meyer N, Schmid Y, Donzelli M, … Liechti ME (2014a) Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of methylphenidate and MDMA administered alone or in combination. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 17(3):371–381. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145713001132
Hysek CM, Schmid Y, Simmler LD, Domes G, Heinrichs M, Eisenegger C, … Liechti ME (2014b). MDMA enhances emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 9(11):1645–1652. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst161
Inagaki TK (2007) Opioids and social connection. Retrieved from https://shanlaboratory.files.wordpress.com/2017/11/inagaki_inpresscdps.pdf
Inagaki TK, Irwin MR, Eisenberger NI (2015) Blocking opioids attenuates physical warmthinduced feelings of social connection. Emotion (Washington, DC) 15(4):494–500. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000088
Inagaki TK, Irwin MR, Moieni M, Jevtic I, Eisenberger NI (2016) A pilot study examining physical and social warmth: higher (non-febrile) oral temperature is associated with greater feelings of social connection. PLoS One 11(6):e0156873. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156873
Ipser JC, Terburg D, Syal S, Phillips N, Solms M, Panksepp J, Malcolm-Smith S, Thomas K, Stein DJ, van Honk J (2013) Reduced fear-recognition sensitivity following acute buprenorphine administration in healthy volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38(1):166–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.002
Johansen P, Krebs T (2009) How could MDMA (ecstasy) help anxiety disorders? A neurobiological rationale. J Psychopharmacol 23(4):389–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881109102787
Johnco C, Wheeler L, Taylor A (2010) They do get prettier at closing time: a repeated measures study of the closing-time effect and alcohol. Soc Influ 5(4):261–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2010.487650
Kairouz S, Greenfield TK (2007) A comparative multi-level analysis of contextual drinking in American and Canadian adults. Addiction 102(1):71–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01655.x
Kelly TH, Foltin RW, Mayr MT, Fischman MW (1994) Effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and social context on marijuana self-administration by humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 49(3):763–768 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7862735
Kirchner TR, Sayette MA, Cohn JF, Moreland RL, Levine JM (2006) Effects of alcohol on group formation among male social drinkers. J Stud Alcohol 67(5):785–793 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16847549
Kirkpatrick MG, de Wit H (2013) In the company of others: social factors alter acute alcohol effects. Psychopharmacology 230(2):215–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3147-0
Kirkpatrick MG, de Wit H (2015) MDMA: a social drug in a social context. Psychopharmacology 232(6):1155–1163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3752-6
Kirkpatrick MG, Gunderson EW, Perez AY, Haney M, Foltin RW, Hart CL (2012) A direct comparison of the behavioral and physiological effects of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans. Psychopharmacology 219(1):109–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2383-4
Kirkpatrick MG, Lee R, Wardle MC, Jacob S, de Wit H (2014) Effects of MDMA and intranasal oxytocin on social and emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 39(7):1654–1663. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.12
Kirkpatrick M, Delton AW, Robertson TE, de Wit H (2015) Prosocial effects of MDMA: a measure of generosity. J Psychopharmacol 29(6):661–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881115573806
Kuntsche E, Knibbe R, Gmel G, Engels R (2006) Who drinks and why? A review of socio-demographic, personality, and contextual issues behind the drinking motives in young people. Addict Behav 31(10):1844–1857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.12.028
Kuypers KPC, de la Torre R, Farre M, Yubero-Lahoz S, Dziobek I, Van den Bos W, Ramaekers JG (2014) No evidence that MDMA-induced enhancement of emotional empathy is related to peripheral oxytocin levels or 5-HT1a receptor activation. PLoS One 9(6):e100719. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100719
Larsen H, Overbeek G, Granic I, Engels RCME (2012) The strong effect of other people’s drinking: two experimental observational studies in a real bar. Am J Addict 21(2):168–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2011.00200.x
Lyvers M, Cholakians E, Puorro M, Sundram S (2011) Beer goggles: blood alcohol concentration in relation to attractiveness ratings for unfamiliar opposite sex faces in naturalistic settings. J Soc Psychol 151(1):105–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903366776
Marrone GF, Pardo JS, Krauss RM, Hart CL (2010) Amphetamine analogs methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) differentially affect speech. Psychopharmacology 208(2):169–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1715-0
Martin CS, Earleywine M, Musty RE, Perrine MW, Swift RM (1993) Development and validation of the biphasic alcohol effects scale. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:140–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1993.tb00739.x
McElrath K (2005) MDMA and sexual behavior: ecstasy users’ perceptions about sexuality and sexual risk. Subst Use Misuse 40(9–10):1461–1477. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-200066814
Meier IM, Bos PA, Hamilton K, Stein DJ, van Honk J, Malcolm-Smith S (2016) Naltrexone increases negatively-valenced facial responses to happy faces in female participants. Psychoneuroendocrinology 74:65–68
Merrill JE, Wardell JD, Read JP (2009) Is expectancy reality? Associations between tension reduction beliefs and mood following alcohol consumption. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 17(6):434–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017424
Miller MA, Bershad AK, de Wit H (2015) Drug effects on responses to emotional facial expressions. Behav Pharmacol 26(6):571–579. https://doi.org/10.1097/FBP.0000000000000164
Mithoefer MC, Wagner MT, Mithoefer AT, Jerome L, Doblin R (2011) The safety and efficacy of {+/−}3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. J Psychopharmacol 25(4):439–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881110378371
Morean ME, Corbin WR, Treat TA (2013) The subjective effects of alcohol scale: development and psychometric evaluation of a novel assessment tool for measuring subjective response to alcohol. Psychol Assess 25(3):780–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032542
Panksepp J, Herman B, Conner R, Bishop P, Scott JP (1978) The biology of social attachments: opiates alleviate separation distress. Biol Psychiatry 13(5):607–618 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/83167
Parker LLC, Penton-Voak IS, Attwood AS, Munafò MR (2008) Effects of acute alcohol consumption on ratings of attractiveness of facial stimuli: evidence of long-term encoding. Alcohol Alcohol 43(6):636–640. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agn065
Pliner P, Cappell H (1974) Modification of affective consequences of alcohol: a comparison of social and solitary drinking. J Abnorm Psychol 83(4):418–425 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4414699
Quigley BM, Collins RL (1999) The modeling of alcohol consumption: a meta-analytic review. J Stud Alcohol 60(1):90–98 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10096313
Rachlinski JJ, Foltin RW, Fischman MW (1989) The effects of smoked marijuana on interpersonal distances in small groups. Drug Alcohol Depend 24(3):183–186 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2605993
Robinson AM, Fronk GE, Zhang H, Tonidandel S, Smith MA (2017) The effects of social contact on cocaine intake in female rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 177:48–53
Rütgen M, Seidel E-M, Silani G, Riečanský I, Hummer A, Windischberger C, Petrovic P, Lamm C (2015) Placebo analgesia and its opioidergic regulation suggest that empathy for pain is grounded in self pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(41):E5638–E5646. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1511269112
Sayette MA (2017) The effects of alcohol on emotion in social drinkers. Behav Res Ther 88:76–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.06.005
Sayette MA, Creswell KG, Dimoff JD, Fairbairn CE, Cohn JF, Heckman BW et al (2012) Alcohol and group formation: a multimodal investigation of the effects of alcohol on emotion and social bonding. Psychol Sci 23(8):869–878. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611435134
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (2014) Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition. J Psychopharmacol 28(9):847–856. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881114542454
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Preller KH, Bosch OG, Bilderbeck AC, Rogers RD, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (2015) Effects of methylphenidate and MDMA on appraisal of erotic stimuli and intimate relationships. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 25(1):17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.11.020
Schweiger D, Stemmler G, Burgdorf C, Wacker J (2014) Opioid receptor blockade and warmth-liking: effects on interpersonal trust and frontal asymmetry. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 9(10):1608–1615. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst152
Shiffman S, Gwaltney CJ, Balabanis MH, Liu KS, Paty JA, Kassel JD, Hickcox M, Gnys M (2002) Immediate antecedents of cigarette smoking: an analysis from ecological momentary assessment. J Abnorm Psychol 111(4):531–545 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12428767
Single E, Wortley S (1993) Drinking in various settings as it relates to demographic variables and level of consumption: findings from a national survey in Canada. J Stud Alcohol 54(5):590–599. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1993.54.590
Snyder M, Tanke ED, Berscheid E (1977) Social perception and interpersonal behavior: on the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. J Pers Soc Psychol 35(9):656–666
Stitzer ML, Griffiths RR, Liebson I (1978) Effects of d-amphetamine on speaking in isolated humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 9(1):57–63 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/704653
Strakowski SM, Sax KW, Setters MJ, Keck PE (1996) Enhanced response to repeated d-amphetamine challenge: evidence for behavioral sensitization in humans. Biol Psychiatry 40(9):872–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(95)00497-1
Syal S, Ipser J, Terburg D, Solms M, Panksepp J, Malcolm-Smith S, … van Honk J (2015) Improved memory for reward cues following acute buprenorphine administration in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 53:10–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.11.009
Tancer M, Johanson C-E (2003) Reinforcing, subjective, and physiological effects of MDMA in humans: a comparison with d-amphetamine and mCPP. Drug Alcohol Depend 72(1):33–44 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14563541
Trezza V, Baarendse PJJ, Vanderschuren LJMJ (2014) On the interaction between drugs of abuse and adolescent social behavior. Psychopharmacology 231(8):1715–1729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3471-z
Tuliao AP, Jaffe AE, McChargue DE (2016) Alcohol expectancies, posttraumatic stress disorder, and alcohol use in college students with a history of childhood trauma. J Dual Diagn 12(1):4–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2016.1146382
Van Den Abbeele J, Penton-Voak IS, Attwood AS, Stephen ID, Munafò MR (2015) Increased facial attractiveness following moderate, but not high, alcohol consumption. Alcohol Alcohol 50(3):296–301. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agv010
Ward AS, Kelly TH, Foltin RW, Fischman MW (1997) Effects of d-amphetamine on task performance and social behavior of humans in a residential laboratory. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 5(2):130–136 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9234049
Wardle MC, de Wit H (2014) MDMA alters emotional processing and facilitates positive social interaction. Psychopharmacology 231(21):4219–4229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3570-x
Wardle MC, Garner MJ, Munafò MR, de Wit H (2012a) Amphetamine as a social drug: effects of d-amphetamine on social processing and behavior. Psychopharmacology 223(2):199–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-012-2708-y
Wardle MC, Treadway MT, de Wit H (2012b) Caffeine increases psychomotor performance on the effort expenditure for rewards task. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 102(4):526–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2012.06.016
Wardle MC, Kirkpatrick MG, de Wit H (2014) “Ecstasy” as a social drug: MDMA preferentially affects responses to emotional stimuli with social content. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 9(8):1076–1081. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsu035
Wardle MC, Bershad AK, de Wit H (2016) Naltrexone alters the processing of social and emotional stimuli in healthy adults. Soc Neurosci 11(6):579–591. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2015.1136355
Watson DW, Sobell MB (1982) Social influences on alcohol consumption by black and white males. Addict Behav 7(1):87–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(82)90031-4
Williams KD, Jarvis B (2006) Cyberball: a program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behav Res Methods 38(1):174–180 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16817529
Williamson S, Gossop M, Powis B, Griffiths P, Fountain J, Strang J (1997) Adverse effects of stimulant drugs in a community sample of drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 44(2–3):87–94 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9088780
Zacny JP, Bodker BK, de Wit H (1992) Effects of setting on the subjective and behavioral effects of d-amphetamine in humans. Addict Behav 17(1):27–33 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1595423
Zadro L, Williams KD, Richardson R (2004) How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. J Exp Soc Psychol 40(4):560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JESP.2003.11.006
Zemishlany Z, Aizenberg D, Weizman A (2001) Subjective effects of MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) on human sexual function. Eur Psychiatry 16(2):127–130 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11311178
Acknowledgements
Preparation of this manuscript was supported by grants from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA02812 and DA037011) and from the National Cancer Institute (R01 CA18477). Elisa Pabon, Kasey Van Hedger, Scott Schepers, and Tristen Inagaki provided comments on the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Wit, H., Sayette, M. Considering the context: social factors in responses to drugs in humans. Psychopharmacology 235, 935–945 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-4854-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-4854-3