Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Protein nutrition in red deer (Cervus elaphus)

  • Published:
Journal of Forestry Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Red deer can adjust to seasonal change of forage quality to maintain a relatively constant crude protein level (21.1±4.0, 14.7±1.0, 11.1±1.1 and 6.5±0.8 in spring, summer, fall and winter, respectively). Apparent protein digestibility is variable from −99.9% to 97.5% depending upon season and forage type. True protein digestibility is 99%. Digestion of protein is significantly influenced by phenolics in diets. Minimum digestible energy intake of 153.5 kcal/kg0.75/day is necessary to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Red deer recycles 18–85% of the urea produced and urea kinetic parameters (urea pool size urea entry rate and urea excretion rate) are correlated to plasma urea concentration. Rumen NH3-N production changes with season, but seasonal changes in other NH3-N kinetic parameters (NH3-N concentration, NH3-N pool size and NH3-N outflow rate) are in dispute. Protein metabolism may be promoted in response to cold stress. Endogenous urinary nitrogen is 0.09 (red deer) and 0.16 g N/kg0.75·day (elk). and metabolic fecal nitrogen is 5.58 g N/kg dry-matter intake. Protein requirements ranges from 100 g/kg DM to 170 g/kg DM for red deer of various ages and physiological stages. In conclusion, the knowledge of protein nutrition of red deer is limited. Much work is urgently needed in metabolism and requirements of protein before the appropriate feeding standard of red deer is coming.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adam, C.L. 1991. Nutrition and the implications of modifying the seasonality of farmed red deer. Pages 211–223 in W. Haresign and D.J.A. Cole, eds. Recent advances in animal nutrition. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • ARC. 1965. The nutrient requirements of farm livestock. 2. Ruminants. Agric. Res. Counc., London, U.K. 264pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, D.L. and N.T. Hobbs 1982. Composition and quality of ek summer diets in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 46: 694–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bondi, A.A. 1987. Animal nutrition. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canon, S.K., P.J. Urness and N.V. DeByle 1987. Habitat selection, foraging behavior, and dietary nutrition of elk in, burned aspen forest. J. Range Manage. 40: 433–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, W.B. and P.J. Urness 1983. Feeding behavior and habitat selection of mule deer and elk on northern Utah summer range. J. Wildl. Manage. 47: 646–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, J.G., L.L. Irwin, L.D. Bryant and J.W. Thomas 1994. Fecal nitrogen and dietary quality relationships in juvenile elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 58: 46–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domingue, B.M.F., D.W. Dellow, P.R. Wilson and T.N. Barry. 1991. Nitrogen metabolism, rumen fermentation, and water absorption in red deer, goats, and sheep. New Zeal. J. Agric. Res. 34: 391–400.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisfeld, D. 1974. Protein requirements of roe deer (Caprolus capreolus L.) for maintenance. Int. Congr. Game Biol. 11: 133–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedel, b.A. and R.J. Hudson 1994. Productivity of farmed red deer in Alberta. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 74: 297–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freudenberger, D.O., K. Toyakawa, T.N. Barry and A.J. Ball. 1994a. Seasonality in digestion and rumen metabolism in red deer (Cervus elaphus) fed on a forage diet. Br. J. Nutr. 71: 489–499.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freudenberger, D.O., C.J. Burns, K. Toyokawa and T.N. Barry. 1994b. Digestion and rumen metabolism of red clover and perennial ryegrass/white clover forages by red deer. J. Agric. Sci. 122: 115–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, C.C. and R.J. Hudson 1979. Weight dynamics of freeranging elk. Univ. Alberta Agric. For. Bull. 58: 80–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gogan, P.J. and R.H. Barrett. 1995. Elk and deer diets in a coastal prairie-scrub mosaic. California. J. Range Manage., 48: 327–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haigh, J.C. and R.J.Hudson 1993. Farming red deer and red deer. Mosby-Year Book, St. Louis, MO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanley, T.A., C.T. Robbins, A.E. Hagerman and C. McArthur. 1992. Predicting digestible protein and digestible dry matter in tannin-containing forages consumed by ruminants. Ecology 73: 537–541.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Happe, P.J., K.J. Jenkins, E.E. Starkey and S.H. Sharrow 1990. Nutritional quality and tannin astringency of browse in clearcuts and old-growth forests J. Wildl. Manage. 54: 557–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs, N.T., D.L. Baker and R.B. Gill 1983. Comparative nutritional ecology of montane ungulates during winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 47: 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobbson, P.N., S.O. Mann, R. Summers and B.W. Staines. 1976. Rumen function in red deer, hill sheep and reindeer in the Scottish Highlands. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb. 75B: 181–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, K.J. and E.E. Starkey. 1993. Winter forages and diets of elk in old-growth and regenerating coniferous forests in western Washington. Am. Midl. Nat. 130: 299–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozak, H.M., R.J. Hudson and L.A. Renecker. 1994. Supplemental winter feeding. Rangelands 16: 153–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, D.M., Jr., and E.E. Stardey. 1985. Fecal indices to dietary quality of cervids in old-growth forests J. Wildl. Manage. 49: 142–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maloiy, G.M.O., 1968. The physiology of digestion and metabolism in the red deer (Cervus elaphus. L.) Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, 192pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maloiy G.M.O., R.N.B. Kay and E.O. Goodall. 1970. Digestion and nitrogen metabolism in sheep and red deer given, large or small amounts of water and protein. Br. J. Nutr. 24: 843–855.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCorquodale, S.M., 1993. Winter foraging behavior of elk in the shrub-steppe of Washington. J. Wildl Manage. 57: 881–890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merrill, E.H., A. Callahan-Olson, K.J. Raedeke and R.D. Taber. 1995. Elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) dietary composition and quality in the Mount St. Helens Blast zone. Northwest Sci. 69: 9–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgantini, L.E. and R.J. Hudson. 1985. Changes in diets of red deer during a hunting season. J. Range Manage. 38: 77–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgantini, L.E. and R.J. Hudson. 1989. Nutritional significance of red deer (Cervus elaphus) migrations to alpine ranges in western Alberta. Canada. Arctic and Alp. Res. 21: 288–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mould, E.D. and R.T. Robbins. 1981. Nitrogen metabolism in elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 323–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mugerwa, J.S. and H.R. Conrad. 1971. Relationship of dietary nonprotein nitrogen to urea kinetics in dairy cows. J. Nutr. 101: 1331–1342.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, J.V., B.W. Norton and R.A. Leng. 1976. Further studies of the dynamics of nitrogen metabolism in sheep. Br. J. Nutr. 35: 127–147.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, B.W., R.M. Murray, K.W. Entwistle, J.V. Nolan. F.M. Ball and R.A. Leng. 1978. The nitrogen metabolism of sheep consuming lingers grass (Iseilema spp.), mitchell grass (Astrebla spp.) and mixed native pasture. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 29:595–603.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orskov, E.R. 1982. Protein nutrition in ruminants. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife feeding and nutrition. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, C.T., T.A. Hanley, A.F. Hagerman, O. Hjeljord, D.L. Baker, C.C. Schwartz and W.W. Mautz. 1987. Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability. Ecology 68: 98–107.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, C.T., R.S. Podbielancik-Norman, D.L. Wilson and E.D. Mould. 1981. Growth and nutrient consumption of elk calves compared Jo other ungulate species. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 172–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, C.T., R.L. Prior, A.N. Moen and W.J. Visek. 1974. Nitrogen metabolism of white-tailed deer. J. Anim. Sci. 38: 186–191.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, C.T., P.J. Van Soest, W.W. Mautz and A.N. Moen. 1975. Peed analysis and digestion with reference to white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 67–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowland, M.M., A.W. Alldredge, J.E. Ellis, B.J. Weber and G.C. White. 1983. Comparative winter diet of elk in New Mexico. J. Wildl. Manage. 47: 924–932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, A.M., A.J. Webster, J.S. Smith and C.A. Simpson. 1978. Energy and nitrogen metabolism of red deer (Gervus elaphus) in cold environments: a comparison with cattle and sheep. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 60: 251–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verite, R. and J.L. Peyraud. 1989. Protein: the PDI systems. Pages 33–47 in R. Jarrige, eds. Ruminant nutrition: recommended allowances & feed tables. John Libbey Eurotext. London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, D.R. 1968. Nitrogen metabolism in the ruminant. J. Dairy Sci. 51: 265–275.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wales, R.A., L.P. Milligan and E.H. McEwan. 1972. Urea recycling in caribou, cattle and sheep. Proc. Int. Reindeer and Caribou Symp., Fairbanks. Alaska 1: 297–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waghirn, G.C. and K.J. Stafford. 1993. Gas production and nitrogen digestion by rumen microbes from deer and sheep. New. Zeal. J. Agric. Res. 36: 493–497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, A.J.F. 1992. The metabolizable protein system for ruminants. Pages 93–110 in P.C. Garnsworthy, W. Haresign and D.J.A. Cole, eds. Recent advances in animal nutrition. But-terworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westra, R. 1978. The effect of temperature and season on digestion and urea kinetics in growing red deer. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Alberta, Edmonton. 175pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westra, R. and R.J. Hudson. 1981. Digestive function of red deer calves. J. Widl. Manage. 45: 148–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, 150040, Harbin, P. R. China

    Chen Huapeng & Luo Liyang

  2. Jinan Zoo, 250031, Jinan, P.R. China

    Xie Xuchang

  3. Xinlin Forestry Bureau, Heilongjiang Province

    Han Yazhen

  4. Huma Forestry Bereau, Heilongjiang Province

    Wang Yuqing

Authors
  1. Chen Huapeng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Luo Liyang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xie Xuchang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Han Yazhen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Wang Yuqing
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Huapeng, C., Liyang, L., Xuchang, X. et al. Protein nutrition in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Journal of Forestry Research 8, 174–181 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02855414

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02855414

Key words

Search

Navigation