Conclusion
The design-layering concept has many implications. In this paper I have explored one of them that explains the maturation in designer thinking over time. In order to move to a new perspective of design it is not necessary to leave older views behind. The new principles added as the designer becomes knowledgeable about each new layer adds to the designer’s range and to the sophistication of the designs that are possible. Further consideration of the layering concept will expand our ability to communicate designs in richer detail, achieve more sophisticated designs, and add to our understanding of the design process itself.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of the Mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, R. C. (1967). Educational Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 18:103–64.
Brand, S. (1994). How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built. New York: Penguin.
Brown, A. L., & Palincsar, A. S. (1989). Guided, Cooperative Learning and Individual Knowledge Acquisition. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays In Honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Carroll, J. M. (1997). Human-Computer Interaction: Psychology as a Science of Design.Annual Review of Psychology, 48: 61–83.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt Rinehart &. Winston.
Gagne, R. M., & Dick, W. (1983). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 34:261–295.
Gagne, R. M., & Rohwer, W. D. (1969). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 21:381–418.
Gibbons, A. S., & Fairweather, P. G. (2000). Computer-Based Instruction. In S. Tobias and J. D. Fletcher (Eds.), Training and Retraining: A Handbook for Business, Industry, Government, and the Military. New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
Gibbons, A. S., Lawless, K., Anderson, T A., & Duffin, J. (in press). The Web and Model-Centered Instruction. In B. Khan (Ed.), Web-Based Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Gibbons, A. S., Fairweather, P. G., Anderson, T A., & Merrill, M. D. (1997). Simulation and Computer-Based Instruction: A Future View. In C. R. Dills and A. J. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional Development Paradigms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Gibbons, A. S., Nelson, J., & Richards, R. (2000). The Architecture of Instructional Simulation: A Design for Tool Construction. Center for Human-System Simulation Technical Report, Idaho Falls, ID: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory.
Glaser, R. & Resnick, L. B. (1972). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 24:201–216.
Lumsdaine, A. A., & May, M. A. (1965). Mass Communication and Educational Media.Annual Review of Psychology, 17:475–534.
McKeachie, W. J. (1974). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 26:161–193.
Medin, D. L., Lynch, E. B., & Solomon, K. O. (2000). Are There Kinds of Concepts?Annual Review of Psychology, 47:513–539.
Merrill, M. D. (1994). Instructional Design Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Norman, D. A. (1988). The Psychology of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Norman, D. A. (1999). The Invisible Computer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Social Constructivist Perspectives on Teaching and Learning.Annual Review of Psychology, 49:345–375.
Pintrich, P. R., Cross, D. R., Kozma, R. B., & McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 37:611–651.
Resnick, L. B. (1981). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 32:659–704.
Sandoval, J. (1995). Teaching in Subject Matter Areas: Science.Annual Review of Psychology, 46:355–374.
Schank, R. C. (1994). Inside Case-Based Explanation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Snow, R. E., & Swanson, J. (1992). Instructional Psychology: Aptitude, Adaptation, and Assessment. Annual Review of Psychology, 43:583–626.
VanLehn, K. (1993). Problem Solving and Cognitive Skill Acquisition. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
VanLehn, K. (1996). Cognitive Skill Acquisition.Annual Review of Psychology, 47: 513–539.
Voss, J. F., Wiley, J., & Carretero, M. (1995). Acquiring Intellectual Skills.Annual Review of Psychology, 46:155–181.
Wittrock, M. C. & Lumsdaine, A. A. (1977). Instructional Psychology.Annual Review of Psychology, 28:417–459.
Zhang, J., Gibbons, A. S., & Merrill, M. D. (1997). Automating the Design of Adaptive and Self-Improving Instruction. In C. R. Dills and A. J. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional Development Paradigms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gibbons, A.S. What and how do designers design?. TECHTRENDS TECH TRENDS 47, 22–27 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02763201
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02763201