Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sensitivity of marine fishes to toxins from the red-tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and implications for fish kills

  • Published:
Marine Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Marine fishes (Atlantic herring, American pollock, winter flounder, Atlantic salmon, and cod) were dosed orally and intraperitoneally (i.p.) with “paralytic shellfish toxins” extracted from Bay of Fundy Gonyaulax excavata (tamarensis) cells. The toxins are lethal to these fishes in low oral doses, and in extremely low i.p. doses. Symptoms are the same among these fishes, both for oral and i.p. administrations, including loss of equilibrium within 5 to 15 min, followed by immobilization and shallow, arrhythmic breathing. Death generally occurs within 20 to 60 min of toxin administration. Dose responses are also similar among these fishes. Oral LD50 values are 400 to 750 μg saxitoxin (STX) equivalent kg-1 body weight. Intraperitoneal LD50 values are 4 to 12 μg STX equivalent kg-1. Toxins are undetectable in fish muscle tissue following lethal oral doses. The similarity of symptoms and dose responses suggest that fish as a group are sensitive to G. excavata toxins. Results, in combination with reports implicating these toxins in herring, sand lance, and menhaden kills, show the plausibility that the nearly worldwide blooms and red tides of G. excavata and its relatives may cause kills of a variety of fishes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Literature Cited

  • Abbott, B. C. and D. Ballantine: The toxin from Gymnodinium breve Ballantine. J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 36, 169–189 (1957)

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, J. A., D. D. Seaton, J. B. Buchanan, and M. R. Longbottom: Biological observations associated with the toxic phytoplankton bloom off the east coast. Nature, Lond. 220, 24–25 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  • Alam, M. I., C. P. Hsu, and Y. Shimizu: Comparison of toxins in three isolates of Gonyaulax tamarensis (Dinophyceae). J. Phycol. 15, 106–110 (1979)

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldrich, D. V., S. M. Ray, and W. B. Wilson: Gonyaulax monilata: population growth and development of toxicity in cultures. J. Protozool. 14, 636–639 (1967)

    Google Scholar 

  • Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Paralytic shellfish poison biological method (28). In: Offical methods of analysis, pp 319–321. 12th ed. (rev.) Washington: AOAC 1975

    Google Scholar 

  • Baden, D. G., T. J. Mende, and R. E. Block: Two similar toxins isolated from Gymnodinium breve. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 327–334 Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates, H. A., R. Kostriken, and H. Rapoport: The occurrence of saxitoxin and other toxins in various dinoflagellates. Toxicon 16, 595–601 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • Clemons, G. P., D. V. Pham, and J. Pinion: Insecticidal activity of Gonyaulax (Dinophyceae) cell powders and saxitoxin to the German cockroach. J. Phycol. 16, 305–307 (1980a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Clemons, G. P., J. P. Pinion, E. Bass, D. V. Pham, M. Sharif, and J. G. Wutoh: A hemolytic principle associated with the redtide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax monilata. Toxicon 18, 323–326 (1980b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, J. C., G. R. Potts, I. R. Deans, and S. M. Fraser: Exceptional mortality of shags and other seabirds caused by paralytic shellfish poison. Brit. Birds 61, 381–404 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, M. H.: Tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin, and related substances: their applications in neurobiology. Int. Rev. Neurobiol 15, 83–166 (1972)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates, J. A. and W. B. Wilson: The toxicity of Gonyaulax monilata Howell to Mugil cephalus. Limnol. Oceanogr. 5, 171–174 (1960)

    Google Scholar 

  • Guillard, R. R. L. and J. H. Ryther: Studies on marine planktonic diatoms. I. Cyclotella nana Hustedt and Detonula confervacea (Cleve) Gran. Can. J. Microbiol. 8, 229–239 (1962)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, J. W., Jr.: History of paralytic shellfish poisoning on the Maine coast. In: The first international conference on toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 525–528. Ed. by V. R. LoCicero. Wakefield: Mass. Sci. Technol. Found. 1975

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackim, E. and J. Gentile: Toxins of a blue-green alga: similarity to saxitoxin. Science, N.Y. 162, 915–916 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeblich, A. R., III and L. A. Loeblich: The systematics of Gonyaulax with special reference to the toxic species. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 41–46. Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, J. J. A. and R. J. Down: Intact killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) as a tool for medically oriented study of marine neurotoxins. Zoologica 54, 85–94 (1969)

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, J. J. A. and L. Provasoli: Nutritional requirements and toxicity of two marine Amphidinium. J. Protozool. 4, 7 (supplement) (1957)

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, L. J. and G. Klein-MacPhee: Toxicity of the New England red tide dinoflagellate to winter flounder larvae. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 389–394. Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Oshima, Y., L. J. Buckley, M. Alam, and Y. Shimizu: Heterogeneity of paralytic shellfish poisons. Three new toxins from cultured Gonyaulax tamarensis cells, Mya arenaria and Saxidomus giganteus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 57C, 31–34 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • Prakash, A., J. C. Medcof, and A. D. Tennant: Paralytic shellfish poisoning in eastern Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 177, 87 pp. (1971)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, S. M. and W. B. Wilson: Effects of unialgal and bacteria-free cultures of Gymnodinium brevis on fish. U.S. Fish. Bull. 57, 469–496 (1957)

    Google Scholar 

  • Risk, M., Y. Y. Lin, R. D. MacFarlane, V. M. Sadagopa-Ramanujam, L. L. Smith, and N. M. Trieff: Purification and chemical studies on a major toxin from Gymnodinium breve. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 335–344. Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Schantz, E. J., V. E. Ghazzarossian, H. K. Schnoes, F. M. Strong, J. P. Springer, J. O. Pezzanite, and J. Clardy: Paralytic poisons from marine dinoflagellates. In: The first international conference on toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 267–274. Ed. by. V. R. LoCicero. Wakefield: Mass. Sci. Technol. Found. 1975

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu, Y.: Developments in the study of paralytic shellfish toxins. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 321–326. Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Sievers, A. M.: Comparative toxicity of Gonyaulax monilata and Gymnodinium breve to annelids, crustaceans, molluscs, and a fish. J. Protozool. 16, 401–404 (1969)

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, D. L. and H. H. Seliger (Eds.) Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, 505 pp. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, F. J. R.: The toxigenic gonyaulocoid dinoflagellates. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 47–56. Ed. by D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurberg, F. P. and J. J. Sasner, Jr.: Biological activity of a cell extract from the dinoflagellate Amphidinium carteri. Chesapeake Sci. 14, 48–69 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W.: Dinoflagellate toxins as probable cause of an Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) kill, and pteropods as apparent vector. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 34, 2421–2424 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W.: Salinity effects on growth and toxin content of Gonyaulax excavata, a marine dinoflagellate causing paralytic shellfish poisoning. J. Phycol. 14, 475–479 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W.: Dinoflagellate toxins in phytoplankton and zooplankton fractions during a bloom of Gonyaulax excavata. In: Toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 381–384. Ed. by. D. L. Taylor and H. H. Seliger. New York: Elsevier North-Holland 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W.: Recurrence of kills of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) caused by dinoflagellate toxins transferred through herbivorous zooplankton. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37, 2262–2265 (1980a)

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W.: Fate and consequences of dinoflagellate toxins in marine food chains. Int. Counc. Explor. Sea, C.M./L.: 15 (1980b)

  • White, A. W.: Marine zooplankton can accumulate and retain dinoflagellate toxins and cause fish kills. Limnol. Oceanogr. 26, 104–110 (1981)

    Google Scholar 

  • White, A. W. and L. Maranda: Paralytic toxins in the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and in shellfish. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 35, 397–402 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. B., S. M. Ray, and D. V. Aldrich: Gymnodinium breve: population growth and development of toxicity in cultures. In: The first international conference on toxic dinoflagellate blooms, pp 127–141. Ed. by V. R. LoCicero. Wakefield: Mass. Sci. Technol. Found. 1975

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Biological Station, Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, E0G 2X0, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada

    A. W. White

Authors
  1. A. W. White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Communicated by R. O. Fournier, Halifax

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

White, A.W. Sensitivity of marine fishes to toxins from the red-tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and implications for fish kills. Mar. Biol. 65, 255–260 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00397119

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00397119

Keywords

Search

Navigation