Friend or Foe? A Reversal of Ingroup Bias
Abstract
Research on groups in organizations has regularly identified the presence of favoritism toward members of one’s ingroup. Identity with a social group helps understand this bias, yet the mechanisms that may undermine the process have not been well documented. This study investigates the effect that not adhering to group expectations has on the positive bias otherwise awarded ingroup members, thus extending the literature on social identity theory and intragroup dynamics. Given that ingroup members, as compared to outgroup members, are expected to reciprocate loyalty and trust, this study examines what happens to the bias for the ingroup member that does not adhere to group expectations. Results from an intergroup negotiation experiment support the hypotheses that breaching group norms minimizes the ingroup bias effect. More importantly, results revealed a reversal of the ingroup bias, whereby ingroup members who did not uphold group expectations were evaluated more negatively than outgroup members.
Keywords
Intragroup dynamics Social identity Ingroup bias Unmet expectationsReferences
- Abid HR, Gulzar A, Hussain W (2015) The impact of servant leadership on organizational citizenship behaviors with the mediating role of trust and moderating role of group cohesiveness; a study of public sector of Pakistan. Int J Acad Res Bus Soc Sci 5(3):234Google Scholar
- Ackermann F, de Vreede GJ (2011) Special issue on ‘dvances in designing group decision and negotiation processes. Group Decis Negot 20(3):271CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Adobor H (2006) The role of personal relationships in inter-firm alliances: benefits, dysfunctions, and some suggestions. Bus Horiz 49(6):473–486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Argote L, Ingram P, Levine JM, Moreland RL (2000) Knowledge transfer in organizations: learning from the experience of others. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 82:1–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Asch SE (1951) Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgments. In: Guetzkow H (ed) Groups, leadership, and men. Sage, San Francisco, pp 222-236Google Scholar
- Ashforth BE, Saks AM (2000) Personal control in organizations: a longitudinal investigation with newcomers. Hum Relat 53(3):311–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Balliet D, Wu J, De Dreu CK (2014) Ingroup favoritism in cooperation: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 140(6):1556CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bartunek JM, Benton AA, Keys CB (1975) Third party intervention and the bargaining behavior of group representatives. J Conflict Resolut 19(3):532–557CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Baumeister RF, Leary MR (1995) The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol Bull 117(3):497–529CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Blau PM (1964) Exchange and power in social life. Wiley, New YorkGoogle Scholar
- Bordia S, Hobman EV, Restubog SLD, Bordia P (2010) Advisor-student relationship in business education project collaborations: a psychological contract perspective. J Appl Soc Psychol 40(9):2360–2386CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brewer MB (1999) The psychology of prejudice: ingroup love or outgroup hate? J Soc Issues 55(3):429–444CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brewer MB (2007) The importance of being we: human nature and intergroup relations. Am Psychol 62(8):728–738CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Brown RW (1986) Social psychology, 2nd edn. Free Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar
- Buttle F, Bok B (1996) Hotel marketing strategy and the theory of reasoned action. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 8(3):5–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cheng X, Macaulay L (2014) Exploring individual trust factors in computer mediated group collaboration: a case study approach. Group Decis Negot 23(3):533–560CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cialdini RB (1984) Influence: the psychology of persuasion. Quill, New YorkGoogle Scholar
- Colquitt JA, Scott BA, LePine JA (2007) Trust, trustworthiness, and trust propensity: a meta-analytic test of their unique relationships with risk taking and job performance. J Appl Psychol 92(4):909CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Conway N, Briner RB (2002) A daily diary study of affective response to psychological contract breach and exceeded promises. J Organ Behav 23(3):287–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Coultas JC, van Leeuwen EJ (2015) Conformity: definitions, types, and evolutionary grounding. In: Zeigler-Hill V, Welling L, Shackelford T (eds) Evolutionary perspectives on social psychology. Springer, Cham, pp 189–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Coyle-Shapiro JAM, Shore LM, Taylor MS, Tetrick LE (2004) The employment relationship: examining psychological and contextual perspectives. Oxford University Press, OxfordGoogle Scholar
- Dirks KT, Ferrin DL (2001) The role of trust in organizational settings. Organ Sci 12(4):450–467CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Earnest DR, Allen DG, Landis RS (2011) Mechanisms linking realistic job previews with turnover: a meta-analytic path analysis. Pers Psychol 64(4):865–897CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Eggins RA, Haslam SA, Reynolds KJ (2002) Social identity and negotiation: subgroup representation and superordinate consensus. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 28(7):887–889CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Festinger L (1954) A theory of social comparison processes. Hum Relat 7(2):117–140CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Fishbein M, Ajzen I (1975) Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley, ReadingGoogle Scholar
- Gardner WL, Garr-Schultz A (2017) Understanding our groups, understanding ourselves: the importance of collective identity clarity and collective coherence to the self. In: Lodi-Smith J, DeMarree K (eds) Self-concept clarity. Springer, Cham, pp 125–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gee A, McGarty C (2013) Aspirations for a cooperative community and support for mental health advocacy: a shared orientation through opinion-based group membership. J Appl Soc Psychol 43(S2):426–441CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Goldman L, Hogg MA (2016) Going to extremes for one’s group: the role of prototypicality and group acceptance. J Appl Soc Psychol 46(9):544–553CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Haines R, Hough J, Cao L, Haines D (2014) Anonymity in computer-mediated communication: more contrarian ideas with less influence. Group Decis Negot 23(4):765–786CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hennessy J, West MA (1999) Intergroup behavior in organizations: a field test of social identity theory. Small Group Res 30(3):361–382CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hoegl M, Weinkauf K, Gemuenden HG (2004) Interteam coordination, project commitment, and teamwork in multiteam R&D projects: a longitudinal study. Organ Sci 15(1):38–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hogg MA (2001) A social identity theory of leadership. Personal Soc Psychol Rev 5(3):184–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hogg MA, Hains SC (1998) Friendship and group identification: a new look at the role of cohesiveness in groupthink. Eur J Soc Psychol 28(3):323–341CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Homans GC (1958) Social behavior as exchange. Am J Sociol 63(6):597–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hunter JA, Banks M, O’Brien K, Kafka S, Hayhurst G, Jephson D, Jorgensen B, Stringer M (2011) Intergroup discrimination involving negative outcomes and self-esteem. J Appl Soc Psychol 41(5):1145–1174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Iacoviello V, Spears R (2018) “I know you expect me to favor my ingroup”: reviving Tajfel’s original hypothesis on the generic norm explanation of ingroup favoritism. J Exp Soc Psychol 76:88–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jackson JW (2000) How variations in social structure affect different types of intergroup bias and different dimensions of social identity in a multi-intergroup setting. Group Process Intergroup Relat 2(2):145–173CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jackson JW (2002) Intergroup attitudes as a function of different dimensions of group identification and perceived intergroup conflict. Self Identity 1(1):11-33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Johnson JL, O’Leary-Kelly AM (2003) The effects of psychological contract breach and organizational cynicism: not all social exchange violations are created equal. J Organ Behav 24(5):627–647CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kelman HC (1961) Processes of opinion change. Public Opin Q 25(1):57–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Klein JD, Pridemore DR (1992) Effects of cooperative learning and need for affiliation on performance, time on task, and satisfaction. Educ Technol Res Dev 40(4):39–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Krupka EL, Leider S, Jiang M (2016) A meeting of the minds: informal agreements and social norms. Manag Sci 63(6):1708–1729CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lam T, Pine R, Baum T (2003) Subjective norms: effects on job satisfaction. Ann Tour Res 30(1):160–177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lewicki R, Saunders DM, Minton JW, Barry B (2003) Negotiation: readings, exercises, and cases. Irwin/McGraw-Hill, BostonGoogle Scholar
- Major D, Kozlowski S, Chao G, Gardner P (1995) A longitudinal investigation of newcomer expectations, early socialization outcomes, and the moderating effects of role development factors. J Appl Psychol 80(3):419–431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mathieu JE, Kukenberger MR, D’innocenzo L, Reilly G (2015) Modeling reciprocal team cohesion–performance relationships, as impacted by shared leadership and members’ competence. J Appl Psychol 100(3):713CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McKnight DH, Cummings LL, Chervany NL (1998) Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. Acad Manag Rev 23(3):473–490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mohrman SA, Cohen SG, Mohrman AM (1995) Designing team-based organizations: new forms for knowledge work. Jossey-Bass, San FranciscoGoogle Scholar
- Navarro-Carrillo G, Valor-Segura I, Moya M (2018) Do you trust strangers, close acquaintances, and members of your ingroup? Differences in trust based on social class in Spain. Soc Indic Res 135(2):585–597CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Paulus PB, Yang H-C (2000) Idea generation in groups: a basis for creativity in organizations. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 82(1):76–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Pondy LR (1968) Organisational conflict: concepts and models. Adm Sci Q 12:296–320CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Porter L, Steers R (1973) Organizational, work and personal factors in employee turnover and absenteeism. Psychol Bull 80(2):151–176CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Priesemuth M, Taylor RM (2016) The more I want, the less I have left to give: the moderating role of psychological entitlement on the relationship between psychological contract violation, depressive mood states, and citizenship behavior. J Organ Behav 37(7):967–982CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Restubog SLD, Zagenczyk TJ, Bordia P, Tang RL (2013) When employees behave badly: the roles of contract importance and workplace familism in predicting negative reactions to psychological contract breach. J Appl Soc Psychol 43(3):673–686CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Robinson SL (1996) Trust and breach of the psychological contract. Adm Sci Q 41:574–599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rosen CC, Chang C-H, Johnson RE, Levy PE (2009) Perceptions of the organizational context and psychological contract breach: assessing competing perspectives. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 108(2):202–217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rousseau D (1990) Assessing organizational culture: the case for multiple methods. In: Stirred B (ed) Organizational climate and culture. Sage, San Francisco, pp 97–107Google Scholar
- Rupp DE, Cropanzano R (2002) The mediating effects of social exchange relationships in predicting workplace outcomes from multifoci organizational justice. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 89(1):925–946CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Saygı Ö, Greer LL, Van Kleef GA, De Dreu CK (2015) Bounded benefits of representative cooperativeness in intergroup negotiations. Group Decis Negot 24(6):993–1014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shah PP, Jehn KA (1993) Do friends perform better than acquaintances? The interaction of friendship, conflict, and task. Group Decis Negot 2(2):149–165CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Simpson B (2006) Social identity and cooperation in social dilemmas. Ration Soc 18(4):443–470CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Smith ER, Mackie DM (2016) Group-level emotions. Curr Opin Psychol 11:15–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sondak H, Neale MA, Pinkley RL (1999) Relationship, contribution, and resource constraints: determinants of distributive justice in individual preferences and negotiated agreements. Group Decis Negot 8(6):489–510CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Staggs SM, Bonito JA, Ervin JN (2018) Measuring and evaluating convergence processes across a series of group discussions. Group Decis Negot. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10726-018-9560-3 Google Scholar
- Sugiura H, Mifune N, Tsuboi S, Yokota K (2017) Gender differences in intergroup conflict: the effect of outgroup threat priming on social dominance orientation. Personal Individ Differ 104:262–265CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sutton G, Griffin MA (2004) Integrating expectations, experience, and psychological contract violations: a longitudinal study of new professionals. J Occup Organ Psychol 77(4):493–514CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tajfel H (1970) Aspects of national and ethnic loyalty. Soc Sci Inf 9(3):119–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tajfel H (1978) The achievement of group differentiation. In: Tajfel H (ed) Differentiation between social groups: studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. Academic Press, London, pp 77–98Google Scholar
- Tajfel H, Turner JC (1979) An integrative theory of intergroup conflict relations. In: Austin WG, Worchel S (eds) The social psychology of intergroup relations. Brooks/Cole, Monterey, pp 33–47Google Scholar
- Tajfel H, Turner JC (1985) The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Worchel S, Austin WG (eds) Psychology of intergroup relations, 2nd edn. Nelson-Hall, Chicago, pp 7–24Google Scholar
- Taris TW, Feij JA, Capel S (2006) Great expectations—and what comes of it: the effects of unmet expectations on work motivation and outcomes among newcomers. Int J Sel Assess 14(3):256–268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tenbrunsel AE (1998) Misrepresentation and expectations of misrepresentation in an ethical dilemma: the role of incentives and temptation. Acad Manag J 41(3):330–339Google Scholar
- Thomas EF, McGarty C, Mavor K (2016) Group interactions as the crucible of social identity formation: a glimpse at the foundations of social identities for collective action. Group Process Intergroup Relat 19(2):137-151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Turner JC (1975) Social comparison and social identity: some prospects for intergroup behaviour. Eur J Soc Psychol 5(1):1–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Turner JC (1981) The experimental social psychology of intergroup behavior. In: Turner JC, Giles H (eds) Intergroup behavior. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 66–101Google Scholar
- Turner JC (1984) Social identification and psychological group formation. In: Tajifel H (ed) The social dimension: European developments in social psychology, vol 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 518–538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Turner JC (1985) Social categorization and self-concept: a social cognitive theory of group behavior. In: Lawler EJ (ed) Advances in group processes, vol 2. JAI Press, Greenwich, pp 77–122Google Scholar
- Turner JC, Hogg MA, Oakes PJ, Reicher SD, Wetherell MS (1987) Rediscovering the social group: a self-categorization theory. Basil BlackwellGoogle Scholar
- Van Der Vegt GS, Bunderson JS (2005) Learning and performance in multidisciplinary teams: the importance of collective team identification. Acad Manag J 48(3):532–547CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- van Knippenberg D, De Dreu CKW, Homan AC (2004) Work group diversity and group performance: an integrative model and research agenda. J Appl Psychol 89(6):1008–1022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Vannier SA, O’Sullivan LF (2017) Great expectations: examining unmet romantic expectations and dating relationship outcomes using an investment model framework. J Soc Pers Relatsh 34(2):235-257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wagner JP, Grigg N, Mann R, Mohammad M (2017) High task interdependence: job rotation and other approaches for overcoming ingroup favoritism. J Manuf Technol Manag 28(4):485–505CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Whitham MM (2017) Paying it forward and getting it back: the benefits of shared social identity in generalized exchange. Sociol Perspect 61(1):81–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wiesenfeld BM, Raghuram S, Garud R (2001) Organizational identification among virtual workers: the role of need for affiliation and perceived work-based social support. J Manag 27(2):213–229Google Scholar
- Yamagishi T, Mifune N (2009) Social exchange and solidarity: ingroup love or outgroup hate? Evolut Hum Behav 30(4):229–237CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Zhao H, Wayne SJ, Glibkowski BC, Bravo J (2007) The impact of psychological contract breach on work-related outcomes: a meta-analysis. Pers Psychol 60(3):647–680CrossRefGoogle Scholar