Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cervical Cancer: General Overview

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Gynecology

  • 304 Accesses

Abstract

Cervical cancer is the most common cancer affecting women in developing countries and the fourth most common type of malignancy affecting women worldwide, with almost half a million cases diagnosed each year. The median age at diagnosis of cervical cancer patients is 49 years. Persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is the most important factor influencing the development of cervical cancer. According to previous research, the prevalence rate of HPV is >99 %. Cervical cancer progresses slowly from cervical intraepithelial neoplasia to invasive cancer. Thus, screening asymptomatic women with Papanicolaou cytological smears allows preinvasive disease to be diagnosed. Although widespread screening has significantly reduced the impact of cervical cancer on women in industrialized countries, such screening is not performed routinely in less developed countries, where most patients present with advanced disease and cervical cancer remains a leading cause of cancer death in women. This chapter outlines some general information that clinicians need to know in order to understand and manage uterine cervical cancer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anttila T, Saikku P, Koskela P, Bloigu A, Dillner J, Ikäheimo I, Jellum E, Lehtinen M, Lenner P, Hakulinen T, Närvänen A, Pukkala E, Thoresen S, Youngman L, Paavonen J. Serotypes of Chlamydia trachomatis and risk for development of cervical squamous cell carcinoma. JAMA. 2001;285(1):47–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Appleby P, Beral V, Berrington de González A, Colin D, Franceschi S, Goodhill A, Green J, Peto J, Plummer M, Sweetland S, Cancer ICoESoC. Cervical cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data for 16,573 women with cervical cancer and 35,509 women without cervical cancer from 24 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 2007;370(9599):1609–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ault KA, Group FIS. Effect of prophylactic human papillomavirus L1 virus-like-particle vaccine on risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2, grade 3, and adenocarcinoma in situ: a combined analysis of four randomised clinical trials. Lancet. 2007;369(9576):1861–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bader AA, Winter R, Haas J, Tamussino KF. Where to look for the sentinel lymph node in cervical cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(6):678.e671–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berrington de González A, Green J, Cancer ICoESoC. Comparison of risk factors for invasive squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the cervix: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 8,097 women with squamous cell carcinoma and 1,374 women with adenocarcinoma from 12 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer. 2007;120(4):885–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmark K, Avall-Lundqvist E, Dickman PW, Henningsohn L, Steineck G. Lymphedema and bladder-emptying difficulties after radical hysterectomy for early cervical cancer and among population controls. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16(3):1130–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bipat S, Glas AS, van der Velden J, Zwinderman AH, Bossuyt PM, Stoker J. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in staging of uterine cervical carcinoma: a systematic review. Gynecol Oncol. 2003;91(1):59–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouvard V, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Freeman C, Galichet L, Cogliano V, Group WIAfRoCMW. A review of human carcinogens – part B: biological agents. Lancet Oncol. 2009;10(4):321–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley SL, Tritz DM, Van Le L, Higgins R, Sevin BU, Ueland FR, DePriest PD, Gallion HH, Bailey CL, Kryscio RJ, Fowler W, Averette H, van Nagell JR. Lymph node metastases and prognosis in patients with stage IA2 cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 1996;63(1):4–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cosin JA, Fowler JM, Chen MD, Paley PJ, Carson LF, Twiggs LB. Pretreatment surgical staging of patients with cervical carcinoma: the case for lymph node debulking. Cancer. 1998;82(11):2241–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Creasman WT, Zaino RJ, Major FJ, DiSaia PJ, Hatch KD, Homesley HD. Early invasive carcinoma of the cervix (3 to 5 mm invasion): risk factors and prognosis. A Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178(1 Pt 1):62–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott P, Coppleson M, Russell P, Liouros P, Carter J, MacLeod C, Jones M. Early invasive (FIGO stage IA) carcinoma of the cervix: a clinico-pathologic study of 476 cases. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2000;10(1):42–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fine BA, Hempling RE, Piver MS, Baker TR, McAuley M, Driscoll D. Severe radiation morbidity in carcinoma of the cervix: impact of pretherapy surgical staging and previous surgery. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995;31(4):717–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujii S, Takakura K, Matsumura N, Higuchi T, Yura S, Mandai M, Baba T, Yoshioka S. Anatomic identification and functional outcomes of the nerve sparing Okabayashi radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol. 2007;107(1):4–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gouy S, Morice P, Narducci F, Uzan C, Gilmore J, Kolesnikov-Gauthier H, Querleu D, Haie-Meder C, Leblanc E. Nodal-staging surgery for locally advanced cervical cancer in the era of PET. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(5):e212–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller PB, Maletano JH, Bundy BN, Barnhill DR, Okagaki T. Clinical-pathologic study of stage IIB, III, and IVA carcinoma of the cervix: extended diagnostic evaluation for paraaortic node metastasis – a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Gynecol Oncol. 1990;38(3):425–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirai Y, Takeshima N, Tate S, Akiyama F, Furuta R, Hasumi K. Early invasive cervical adenocarcinoma: its potential for nodal metastasis or recurrence. BJOG. 2003;110(3):241–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(7):423–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes RR, Brewington KC, Hanjani P, Photopulos G, Dick D, Votava C, Moran M, Coleman S. Extended field irradiation for cervical cancer based on surgical staging. Gynecol Oncol. 1980;9(2):153–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • IARC. WHO histological classification of tumours of the uterine cervix. http://screening.iarc.fr/atlasclassifwho.php?lang=1

  • Kasamatsu T, Okada S, Tsuda H, Shiromizu K, Yamada T, Tsunematsu R, Ohmi K. Early invasive adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix: criteria for nonradical surgical treatment. Gynecol Oncol. 2002;85(2):327–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenter GG, Ansink AC, Heintz AP, Aartsen EJ, Delemarre JF, Hart AA. Carcinoma of the uterine cervix stage I and IIA: results of surgical treatment: complications, recurrence and survival. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1989;15(1):55–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee KB, Lee JM, Park CY, Cho HY, Ha SY. Lymph node metastasis and lymph vascular space invasion in microinvasive squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16(3):1184–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee YN, Wang KL, Lin MH, Liu CH, Wang KG, Lan CC, Chuang JT, Chen AC, Wu CC. Radical hysterectomy with pelvic lymph node dissection for treatment of cervical cancer: a clinical review of 954 cases. Gynecol Oncol. 1989;32(2):135–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long Y, Yao DS, Pan XW, Ou TY. Clinical efficacy and safety of nerve-sparing radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e94116.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell DG, Snyder B, Coakley F, Reinhold C, Thomas G, Amendola M, Schwartz LH, Woodward P, Pannu H, Hricak H. Early invasive cervical cancer: tumor delineation by magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and clinical examination, verified by pathologic results, in the ACRIN 6651/GOG 183 Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(36):5687–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michel G, Morice P, Castaigne D, Leblanc M, Rey A, Duvillard P. Lymphatic spread in stage Ib and II cervical carcinoma: anatomy and surgical implications. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;91(3):360–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mota F, Vergote I, Trimbos JB, Amant F, Siddiqui N, Del Rio A, Verheijen R, Zola P. Classification of radical hysterectomy adopted by the Gynecological Cancer Group of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2008;18(5):1136–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz N, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, Moreno V, Herrero R, Smith JS, Shah KV, Meijer CJ, Bosch FX, Group IAfRoCMCCS. Role of parity and human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: the IARC multicentric case–control study. Lancet. 2002;359(9312):1093–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okabayashi H. Radical hysterectomy for cancer of the uteri. Modification of the Takayama operation. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1921;33:335–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Östör AG, Rome RM. Micro-invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a clinico-pathologic study of 200 cases with long-term follow-up. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 1994;4(4):257–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pecorelli S. Revised FIGO staging for carcinoma of the vulva, cervix, and endometrium. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2009;105(2):103–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pecorelli S, Zigliani L, Odicino F. Revised FIGO staging for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2009;105(2):107–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse QD, Maas CP, ter Kuile MM, Lowik M, van Eijkeren MA, Trimbos JB, Kenter GG. An observational longitudinal study to evaluate miction, defecation, and sexual function after radical hysterectomy with pelvic lymphadenectomy for early-stage cervical cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006;16(3):1119–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piver MS, Rutledge F, Smith JP. Five classes of extended hysterectomy for women with cervical cancer. Obstet Gynecol. 1974;44(2):265–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poynor EA, Marshall D, Sonoda Y, Slomovitz BM, Barakat RR, Soslow RA. Clinicopathologic features of early adenocarcinoma of the cervix initially managed with cervical conization. Gynecol Oncol. 2006;103(3):960–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Querleu D, Morrow CP. Classification of radical hysterectomy. Lancet Oncol. 2008;9(3):297–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn MA, Benedet JL, Odicino F, Maisonneuve P, Beller U, Creasman WT, Heintz AP, Ngan HY, Pecorelli S. Carcinoma of the cervix uteri. FIGO 26th Annual Report on the Results of Treatment in Gynecological Cancer. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006;95 Suppl 1:S43–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubinstein PG, Aboulafia DM, Zloza A. Malignancies in HIV/AIDS: from epidemiology to therapeutic challenges. AIDS. 2014;28(4):453–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Selman TJ, Mann C, Zamora J, Appleyard TL, Khan K. Diagnostic accuracy of tests for lymph node status in primary cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2008;178(7):855–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith HO, Tiffany MF, Qualls CR, Key CR. The rising incidence of adenocarcinoma relative to squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix in the United States – a 24-year population-based study. Gynecol Oncol. 2000;78(2):97–105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smits RM, Zusterzeel PL, Bekkers RL. Pretreatment retroperitoneal para-aortic lymph node staging in advanced cervical cancer: a review. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2014;24(6):973–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sood AK, Nygaard I, Shahin MS, Sorosky JI, Lutgendorf SK, Rao SS. Anorectal dysfunction after surgical treatment for cervical cancer. J Am Coll Surg. 2002;195(4):513–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton GP, Bundy BN, Delgado G, Sevin BU, Creasman WT, Major FJ, Zaino R. Ovarian metastases in stage IB carcinoma of the cervix: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992;166(1 Pt 1):50–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torre LA, Bray F, Siegel RL, Ferlay J, Lortet-Tieulent J, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65(2):87–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Meurs H, Visser O, Buist MR, Ten Kate FJ, van der Velden J. Frequency of pelvic lymph node metastases and parametrial involvement in stage IA2 cervical cancer: a population-based study and literature review. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2009;19(1):21–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werheim E. The extended abdominal operation for carcinoma uteri (based on 500 operative cases). Am J Obstet Dis Women Child. 1912;66:169–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler CM, Hunt WC, Joste NE, Key CR, Quint WG, Castle PE. Human papillomavirus genotype distributions: implications for vaccination and cancer screening in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101(7):475–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan

    Seiji Mabuchi, Mahiru Kawano, Yuri Matsumoto & Tadashi Kimura

Authors
  1. Seiji Mabuchi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mahiru Kawano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yuri Matsumoto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Tadashi Kimura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Family Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA

    Donna Shoupe

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this entry

Cite this entry

Mabuchi, S., Kawano, M., Matsumoto, Y., Kimura, T. (2016). Cervical Cancer: General Overview. In: Shoupe, D. (eds) Handbook of Gynecology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17002-2_36-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17002-2_36-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-17002-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation