Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Bulk Deposition of Pesticides in a Canadian City: Part 1. Glyphosate and Other Agricultural Pesticides

  • Published:
Water, Air, & Soil Pollution Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Winnipeg is a city in the Canadian Prairies with a population of about 600,000. Like many other cities and towns in this region of Canada, the city is surrounded by agriculture. Weekly bulk deposition samples were collected from May to September in 2010 and 2011 and analyzed for 43 pesticides used in Prairie agriculture. Fourteen herbicides, five herbicide metabolites, two insecticides, and two fungicides were detected with 98.5 % of the samples containing chemical mixtures. Glyphosate is the most widely used pesticide in Prairie agriculture and accounted for 65 % of the total pesticide deposition over the 2 years. Seasonal glyphosate deposition was more than five times larger in 2011 (182 mm rain) than 2010 (487 mm rain), suggesting increased glyphosate particulate transport in the atmosphere during the drier year. The seasonal deposition of ten other frequently herbicides was significantly positively correlated with the amount of herbicides applied both in and around Winnipeg (r = 0.90, P < 0.001) and with agricultural herbicide use around Winnipeg (r = 0.63, P = 0.05), but not with agricultural herbicide use province wide (P = 0.23). Herbicides 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), dicamba, and mecoprop had known urban applications and were more consistently detected in samples relative to bromoxynil and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) whose frequency of detections decreased throughout August and September. The Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for irrigation water were frequently exceeded for both dicamba (75 %) and MCPA (49 %) concentrations in rain. None of glyphosate concentrations in rain exceeded any of the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines established for this herbicide.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, C. D., & Thurman, E. M. (1991). Formation and transport of deethylatrazine in the soil and vadose zone. Journal of Environmental Quality, 20(3), 540–547.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Rajab, A. J., Amella, S., & Schiavon, M. (2008). Sorption and leaching of 14C-glyphosate in agricultural soils. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 28(3), 419–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. (2006). Guide to crop protection: Weeds, plant diseases, insects. Winnipeg: Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives, and Regina, Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckie, H. J., Harker, K. N., Hall, L. M., Warwick, S. I., Légère, A., Sikkema, P. H., Clayton, G. W., Thomas, A. G., Leeson, J. Y., Séguin-Swartz, G., & Simard, M. J. (2006). A decade of herbicide-resistant crops in Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 86(4), 1243–1264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergström, L., Börjesson, E., & Stenström, J. (2011). Laboratory and lysimeter studies of glyphosate and aminomethyl phosphonic acid in a sand and a clay soil. Journal of Environmental Quality, 40(1), 98–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boutin, C., Elmegaard, N., & Kjaer, C. (2004). Toxicity testing of fifteen non-crop plant species with six herbicides in a greenhouse experiment: implications for risk assessment. Ecotoxicology, 13(4), 349–369.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brimble, S., Bacchus, P., & Caux, P. Y. (2005). Pesticide utilization in Canada: a compilation of current sales and use data. Ottawa: Environment Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calamari, D., Jones, K., Kannan, K., Lecloux, A., Olsson, M., Thurman, M., & Zannetti, P. (2000). Monitoring as an indicator of persistence and long-range transport. In G. Klečk’a, B. Boethling, J. Franklin, L. Grady, D. Graham, P. H. Howard, K. Kannan, R. J. Larson, D. Mackay, D. Muir, & D. van de Meent (Eds.), Evaluation of persistence and long-range transport of organic chemicals in the environment (pp. 205–239). Florida: SETAC Press Pensacola.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey, S., Crk, T., Flaherty, C., Hurley, B., Hetrich, J., Moore, K., & Thermes, S. C. (2008). Risks of glyphosate use to federally threatened California red-legged frog (Rana aurora draytonii) (p. 20460). Washington, DC: Pesticide Effects Determination, Environmental Fate and Effects Division Office of Pesticide Programs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cessna, A. J., Sheedy, C., Farenhorst, A., & McQueen, D. A. R. (2010). Pesticides. In W. Eilers, R. MacKay, L. Graham, & A. Lefebvre (Eds.), Environmental sustainability of Canadian agriculture: agri-environmental indicator report series—report #3 (pp. 101–107). Ottawa: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, F. C., Simcik, M. F., & Capel, P. D. (2011). Occurrence and fate of the herbicide glyphosate and its degradate aminomethylphosphonic acid in the atmosphere. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 30(3), 548–555.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coote, D. R., Dumanski, J., & Ramsey, J. F. (1981). Assessment of degradation of agricultural lands in Canada. Ottawa: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Branch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coupe, R. H., Manning, M. A., Foreman, W. T., Goolsby, D. A., & Majewski, M. S. (2000). Occurrence of pesticides in rain and air in urban and agricultural areas of Mississippi, April-September 1995. Science of the Total Environment, 248(2), 227–240.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duke, S. O., & Bowles, S. B. (2008). Mini-review glyphosate: a once-in-a-century herbicide. Pest Management Science, 64(4), 319–325.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada. (2012). Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000, National Climate Data and Information Archive. [Online]. http://www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html. Accessed 9 Sep 2012.

  • Goolsby, D. A., Thurman, E. M., Pomes, M. L., Meyer, M. T., & Battaglin, W. A. (1997). Herbicides and their metabolites in rainfall: origin, transport, and deposition patterns across the States, 1990–1991. Environmental Science & Technology, 31(5), 1325–1333.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grover, R., Shewchuk, S. R., Cessna, A. J., Smith, A. E., & Hunter, J. H. (1985). Fate of 2,4-D iso-octyl ester after application to a wheat field. Journal of Environmental Quality, 14(2), 203–210.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grynkiewicz, M., Polkowska, Ż., Gorecki, T., & Namieśnik, J. (2003). Pesticides in precipitation from an urban region in Poland (Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia Tricity) between 1998 and 2000. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 149(1–4), 3–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, B. D., Harker, K. N., Hasselback, P., Moyer, J. R., Inaba, D. J., & Byers, S. D. (2001). Phenoxy herbicides in Alberta rainfall: potential effects on sensitive crops. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 82(2), 481–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, B. D., Inaba, D. J., Byers, S. D., & Grant, C. A. (2003). Levels of “phenoxy” herbicides in prairie rainfall during 2000–2001. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 83(2), 467–470.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, R. S., Capel, P. D., & Larson, S. J. (2000). Comparison of pesticides in eight U.S. urban streams. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 19(9), 2249–2258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Humphries, D., Byrtus, G., & Anderson, A. (2005). Glyphosate residues in Alberta’s atmospheric deposition, soils and surface waters. Edmonton: Alberta Environment, Water Research Users Group. This report can be accessed online at http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/library/6444.pdf. Accessed 18 Oct 2014.

  • Lamprea, K., & Ruban, V. (2011). Characterization of atmospheric deposition and runoff water in a small suburban catchment. Environmental Technology, 32(10), 1141–1149.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larney, F. J., Cessna, A. J., & Bullock, M. S. (1999). Herbicide transport on wind-eroded sediment. Journal of Environmental Quality, 28(5), 1412–1421.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, D. A., Li, S., & McConkey, B. G. (2010). Soil erosion risk. In W. Eilers, R. MacKay, L. Graham, & A. Lefebvre (Eds.), Environmental sustainability of Canadian agriculture: agri-environmental indicator report series – report #3 (pp. 46–53). Ottawa: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majewski, M. S., & Capel, P. D. (1995). Pesticides in the atmosphere: distribution, trends, and governing factors. Chelsea: Ann Arbor Press Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manitoba Agricultural Services Corporation. (2013). MMPP variety yield data browser. [Online]. http://www.mmpp.com/mmpp.nsf/mmpp_browser_variety.html. Accessed 15 Mar 2013.

  • Meijers, R. T., Oderwald-Muller, E., Nuhn, P. A. N. M., & Kruithof, J. C. (1995). Degradation of pesticides by ozonation and advanced oxidation. Ozone: Science & Engineering, 17(6), 673–686.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Messing, P. G., Farenhorst, A., Waite, D. T., McQueen, D. A. R., Sproull, J. F., Humphries, D. A., & Thompson, L. L. (2011). Predicting wetland contamination from atmospheric deposition measurements of pesticides in the Canadian Prairie Pothole region. Atmospheric Environment, 45(39), 7227–7234.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Messing, P., Farenhorst, A., Waite, D., & Sproull, J. (2013). Influence of usage and chemical-physical properties on the atmospheric transport and deposition of pesticides to agricultural regions of Manitoba, Canada. Chemosphere, 90(6), 1997–2003.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Messing, P., Farenhorst, A., Waite, D. T., & Sproull, J. F. (2014). Current-use herbicides in air as influenced by their estimated agricultural use at various distances from six sampling locations. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 225(6), 1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quaghebeur, D., De Smet, B., De Wulf, E., & Steurbaut, W. (2004). Pesticides in rainwater in Flanders, Belgium: results from the monitoring program 1997–2001. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6(3), 182–190.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raina, R., Hall, P., & Sun, L. (2010). Occurrence and relationship of organophosphorus insecticides and their degradation products in the atmosphere in western Canada agricultural regions. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(22), 8541–8546.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rawn, D. F. K., Halldorson, T. H. J., Lawson, B. D., & Muir, D. C. G. (1999). A multi-year study of four herbicides in air and precipitation from a small prairie watershed. Journal of Environmental Quality, 28(3), 898–906.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scribner, A. E., Thurman, E. M., Goolsby, D. A., Meyer, M. T., Battaglin, W. A., & Kolpin, D. W. (2005). Summary of significant results from studies of triazine herbicides and their degradation products in surface water, ground water, and precipitation in the Midwestern United States during the 1990s. Lawrence: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5094. This report can be accessed online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5094/pdf/SIR20055094.pdf. Accessed 18 Oct 2014.

  • Singh, S. B., Das, T. K., & Kulshrestha, G. (2013). Persistence of herbicide fenoxaprop ethyl and its acid metabolite in soil and wheat crop under Indian tropical conditions. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, 48(5), 324–330.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skipper, H. D., & Volk, V. V. (1972). Biological and chemical degradation of atrazine in three Oregon soils. Weed Science, 20(4), 344–347.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. E. (1985). Persistence and transformation of the herbicides [14C]Fenoxaprop-ethyl and [14C]fenthiaprop-ethyl in two prairie soils under laboratory and field conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 33(3), 483–488.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. E. (1988). Persistence and transformation of the herbicide [14C]glufosinate-ammonium in prairie soils under laboratory conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 36(2), 393–397.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. E., & Belyk, M. B. (1989). Field persistence studies with the herbicide glufosinate-ammonium in Saskatchewan soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 18(4), 475–479.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thurman, E. M., & Cromwell, A. E. (2000). Atmospheric transport, deposition, and fate of triazine herbicides and their metabolites in pristine areas at Isle Royale National Park. Environmental Science & Technology, 34(15), 3079–3085.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, A., & Struger, J. (2014). Changes in acid herbicide concentrations in urban streams after a cosmetic pesticides ban. Challenges, 5(1), 138–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • University of Hertfordshire. (2013). The Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB) developed by the Agriculture & Environment Research Unit (AERU), University of Hertfordshire, 2006–2013. [Online]. http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/iupac/index.htm. Accessed 1 Sep 2014.

  • Van Dijk, H. F. G., & Guicherit, R. (1999). Atmospheric dispersion of current-use pesticides: a review of the evidence from monitoring studies. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 115(1–4), 21–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waite, D., Cessna, A., Grover, R., Kerr, L., & Snihura, A. (2004). Environmental concentrations of agricultural herbicides in Saskatchewan, Canada: bromoxynil, dicamba, diclofop, MCPA, and trifluralin. Journal of Environmental Quality, 33(5), 1616–1628.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waite, D., Bailey, P., Sproull, J., Quiring, D., Chau, D., Bailey, J., & Cessna, A. (2005). Atmospheric concentrations and dry and wet deposits of some herbicides currently used on the Canadian Prairies. Chemosphere, 58(6), 693–703.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welch, M. A. (2012). Weeding out the chemicals. [Online]. http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/weeding-out-the-chemicals-152134735.html. Accessed 20 Oct 2012.

  • Wilson, J. L. (2012). Agricultural pesticide use trends in Manitoba and 2,4-D fate in soil. Ph.D. Thesis. Winnipeg, Manitoba: University of Manitoba.

  • Xiaoxu, C., Shuang, Y., Liu, H., Shujun, S., Yanan, Z., & Wenming, L. (2011). Residues and dissipation of the herbicide fenoxaprop-p-ethyl and its metabolite in wheat and soil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 87(1), 50–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada (NSERC) for provided research funding to complete this study. Lindsey Andronak was also supported by a University of Manitoba Graduate Fellowship (UMGF). In addition, the authors also acknowledge Alberta Innovates Technology Futures for the commercial laboratory analysis and the field assistance of Paul Messing, Terri Ramm, and Karin Rose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Soil Science, 13 Freedman Crescent, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, 362 Ellis Building, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3T 2N2

    Annemieke Farenhorst, L. A. Andronak & R. D. A. McQueen

Authors
  1. Annemieke Farenhorst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. L. A. Andronak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. R. D. A. McQueen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Annemieke Farenhorst.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Farenhorst, A., Andronak, L.A. & McQueen, R.D.A. Bulk Deposition of Pesticides in a Canadian City: Part 1. Glyphosate and Other Agricultural Pesticides. Water Air Soil Pollut 226, 47 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2343-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2343-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation