Abstract
Since Christian visual culture emerged from the substratum of antique pagan imagery in the late second – third century AD, the relationship between iconoclastic and iconophile views has oscillated in Christianity. The basis of the criticism against imagery was the ban imposed in the Old Testament, which was interpreted, depending on exegetical stringency, as a strict ban on either the production of images of God or of any representation of animated creatures. In the eighth century, the confrontation between the opposing inner-Christian positions culminated in the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy. With reference to the actual discourse of hybridity in cultural theory, this paper provides a case study of processes in the eighth century which took place in the Syro-Palestinian region during the clash of Christian and Muslim Arab religious ideas and visual cultures. Archaeological investigations of church interiors in this area have documented a trend towards geometrical motifs on the one hand, and deliberate destruction of older figural representations on the other: mosaic tesserae were removed from relevant places in floor mosaics and rearranged on the same spot into abstract or floral motifs. These discoveries raise the questions of the agents’ identity and the backgrounds to these iconophobic acts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The literature on this topic is immense. For a current overview see Jäggi 2009, for a short summary see Helas 2003. Broad insights are given by Elliger 1930, Bredekamp 1975, Bryer and Herrin 1977, Dohmen and Sternberg 1987, Feld 1990, Möseneder 1997, Besançon 2001, and McClanan and Johnson 2005. Especially helpful are Baynes 1951, Stock 2007, and – on Western iconoclasm – Angenendt 2001, and Noble 2009.
- 2.
From the wide research available on this subject only some references shall be cited: Martin 1930 and Irmscher 1980 offer clear and still current summaries of the Byzantine Iconolastic Controversy; a short overview can be found in Lange 2007. The iconoclasm under Leo III has been analysed by Gero 1973. Grabar 1957 provides a collection of archaeological sources, which is expanded by Brubaker and Haldon 2001. The cultural roots of the Byzantine phenomenon are discussed by Barnard 1974.
- 3.
The 634 invasion of Syria (fall of Gaza, Bethlehem), followed by the final, August 636 battle at the river Yarmuk, and the falls of Jerusalem between 635 and 638, and Caesarea in 640.
- 4.
As Piccirillo 1998, 263 points out, in this region the habit of laying out mosaic pavements and wall mosaics persisted at least until the second half of the eighth century.
- 5.
Adnan Shiyyab has assembled more than 60 churches in Palestine and Jordan showing clear signs of iconoclastic activities (Shiyyab 2006).
- 6.
Eliya Ribak concludes that in the provinces of Palestine, “iconoclasm appears in 21% of synagogues where human figures have been recognised and in 25% of churches with human figures” (Ribak 2007, 33).
- 7.
For the original conditions see Ovadiah and Ovadiah 1987, pl. CIX.
- 8.
Damage of that kind has also been found in the Palestinian Jewish synagogues of Na’aran and Meroth (Ribak 2007, 33). In Meroth the evidence suggests that only the eyes of the figures were destroyed. This alteration, combined with covering the mosaic with a flagstone floor, already took place before the Muslim reign, possibly at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century (Ribak 2007, 34).
- 9.
E.g. at Madaba (map church and cathedral), Nitl, Rihab, Umm er-Rasas, Zei.
- 10.
See also the drawing in Schick 1995, plate X. The present inscription has to be read as 785, in the time of Bishop Sergius, given as year 680 according to the era of the province of Arabia. The explanation given for the different original date is that the inscription was damaged around that date. The person who repaired the damage didn’t know Greek as can be recognised by the incorrect use of individual letters. A few coloured mosaic cubes in the otherwise pure white background give a hint of which part was damaged and then restored by the worker. The first letter of the date seems to be original. It is a Greek X, symbolising 600 in the system of the milesian numerals. The following Greek letter Π symbolising 80 is a restoration. Instead of it, Schick argues, originally there were the letters ΙΓ symbolising 13 (I = 10, Γ = 3). Piccirillo and Alliata 1994, 244–246 and Ognibene 2002, 79 follow Schick in this argumentation. The restoration of the date was completed before the church was abandoned.
- 11.
The mosaics of the two churches at Umm er-Rasas were covered with a layer of silt and ash. This indicates that the buildings were abandoned for some time before their collapse. Obviously the buildings were not extensively robbed before they collapsed because many fragments of the interior furnishings - such as columns, chancel screens, and reliquaries - were found inside. The latest pottery sherds found in the area of the two churches of Bishop Sergius and Saint Stephen have been Early Islamic, perhaps datable to the ninth century.
- 12.
Another example for this modus operandi can be found in the lower church at el-Quweisma. For various examples see Schick 1995, 200.
- 13.
The exact beginning of Leo III’s iconoclasm is not handed down in the written sources. Probably one of his first actions was the destruction of the icon of Christ at the Chalke portal leading to the imperial palace in Constantinople in 726.
- 14.
Although the text was written by Stephen the deacon (of the Great Church in Constantinople) at the beginning of the ninth century according to his own statement, the iconophile passages may have been added as late as the end of the iconoclastic controversy in the middle of the ninth century. See Auzépy 1997.
- 15.
Vita Stephani iunioris (Patrologia Graeca 100, col. 1113), translation by Mango 1993, 152.
- 16.
In addition, Byzantine iconoclasm was turned down by the Christian church hierarchy in the east. It was condemned by local synods and patriarchs in 760, 764 and 767 (Brubaker and Haldon 2001, 35).
- 17.
In the sixth century, Jewish communities also showed a revulsion for figural representations which previously had been accepted in synagogues (King 1985, 26; Fine 2000). Eliya Ribak has observed that “iconoclasm also affected both churches and Jewish synagogues in the same way and in the same locations, suggesting a shared theology of images” (Ribak 2007, 78). Interestingly, Samaritan synagogues in Palestine that were likewise decorated with mosaic floors were not affected by iconoclasm. The reason for this was that originally they did not depict living creatures on their mosaic pavements or any other religious object (Ribak 2007, 33, 78).
- 18.
There is also an extensive bibliography on the Muslim attitudes towards images. See for instance the overview chapters in Barnard 1974, 10–33, Besançon 2000, 77–81, and Belting 2008, 67–80 with further references, and the publications of Paret 1960, Paret 1976–77, Grabar 1977, King 1985, Shiyyab 2006, and Naef 2007.
- 19.
For an overview of the diverse activities associated with this campaign see for example Griffith 2008.
- 20.
- 21.
Bonz and Struve 2006, 143 describe this phenomenon as the “Gleichzeitigkeit von Ungleichzeitigkeiten verschiedener Kulturen”.
- 22.
For the nascent discourse on this topic in the fields of art history and archaeology see Borgolte and Schneidmüller 2009, and the contributions of Philipp Stockhammer and Joseph Maran in the present volume. Dealing with the artistic changes of the 1990s, which were caused by the influences of the so-called new media, Christian W. Thomsen may be considered as a precursor of the debate (Thomsen 1994).
- 23.
He talked of the mosaic floor at Khirbet 'Asida as “a curious case of a ‘palimpsest’ mosaic, with the animals’ forms recognizable among the later flowers”.
- 24.
I owe this reference to Hans Peter Hahn.
- 25.
Flood 2001, 224 n. 171 underlines that the imagery of the Umayyad mosaics is very similar to the iconoclastic decoration of Monophysite churches; see the discussion above.
References
Angenendt, Arnold. 2001. “Der römische und gallisch-fränkische Anti-Ikonoklasmus.” Frühmittel-alterliche Studien 35: 201–225.
Auzépy, Marie-France. 1997. La vie d’Étienne le Jeune par Étienne le Diacre: Introduction, édition et traduction. Aldershot: Variorum.
Avi-Yonah, Michael. 1932. “Mosaic Pavements in Palestine.” Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 2: 136–181.
Avi-Yonah, Michael. 1933. “Mosaic Pavements in Palestine.” Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 3: 26–47, 49–73.
Barnard, Leslie W. 1974. The Graeco-Roman and Oriental Background of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Byzantina Neerlandica 5. Leiden: Brill.
Bashear, Suliman. 1991. “Qibla Musharriqa and Early Muslim Prayer in Churches.” The Muslim World 81: 267–282, accessed February 11, 2011, doi: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1991.tb03531.x.
Baumann, Peter. 1999. Spätantike Stifter im Heiligen Land: Darstellungen und Inschriften auf Bodenmosaiken in Kirchen, Synagogen und Privathäusern. Spätantike - frühes Christentum - Byzanz, Reihe B: Studien und Perspektiven 5. Wiesbaden: Reichert.
Baynes, Norman H. 1951. “Idolatry and the Early Church.” The Harvard Theological Review 44: 39–106.
Belting, Hans. 2004. Bild und Kult: Eine Geschichte des Bildes vor dem Zeitalter der Kunst. 6th ed. Munich: Beck.
Belting, Hans. 2008. Florenz und Bagdad: Eine westöstliche Geschichte des Blicks. Munich: Beck.
Besançon, Alain. 2000. The Forbidden Image: An Intellectual History of Iconoclasm. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.
Bhabha, Homi K. 1998. “Culture’s In-Between.” In Questions of Cultural Identity, edited by Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay, 53–60. London: SAGE Publications.
Blázquez Martínez, José M. 1996. “Arte bizantino antiguo de tradición clasica enl desierto jordano: Los mosaicos de Um er-Rasas.” Goya 1996, H. 255: 130–143.
Bonz, Jochen, and Karin Struve. 2006. “Homi K. Bhabha: Auf der Innenseite kultureller Differenz: “in the middle of differences”.” In Kultur: Theorien der Gegenwart, edited by Stephan Moebius and Dirk Quadflieg, 140–153. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Borgolte, Michael, and Bernd Schneidmüller, eds. 2009. Hybride Kulturen im mittelalterlichen Europa: Vorträge und Workshops einer internationalen Frühlingsschule. Europa im Mittelalter 16. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Bowersock, Glen W. 2006. Mosaics as History: The Near East from Late Antiquity to Islam. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Bredekamp, Horst. 1975. Kunst als Medium sozialer Konflikte: Bilderkämpfe von der Spätantike bis zur Hussitenrevolution. Edition Suhrkamp 763. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
Brisch, Klaus 1988. “Observations on the Iconography of the Mosaics in the Great Mosque at Damascus.” In Content and Context of Visual Arts in the Islamic World: Papers from a Colloquium in Memory of Richard Ettinghausen, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, 2 – 4 April 1980, Monographs on the Fine Arts 44, edited by Priscilla Soucek, 13–20. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Brubaker, Leslie, and John Haldon. 2001. Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (ca 680 – 850): The Sources: An Annotated Survey. Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Monographs 7. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Bryer, Anthony, and Judith Herrin, eds. 1977. Iconoclasm: Papers given at the ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975. Birmingham: Centre for Byzantine Studies University of Birmingham.
Derfler, Steven L. 2003. “The Byzantine Church at Tel Kerioth and Religious Iconoclasm in the 8th Century: The 1991–1994 Seasons of Excavation.” ARAM 15: 39–47, accessed February 11, 2011, doi: 10.2143/ARAM.15.0.504524.
Dohmen, Christoph, and Thomas Sternberg, eds. 1987. … kein Bildnis machen: Kunst und Theologie im Gespräch. Würzburg: Echter.
El Cheikh, Nadia Maria. 2004. Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs, 36. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Elliger, Walter. 1930. Die Stellung der alten Christen zu den Bildern in den ersten vier Jahrhunderten: Nach den Angaben der zeitgenössischen kirchlichen Schriftsteller. Leipzig: Dieterich.
Feld, Helmut. 1990. Der Ikonoklasmus des Westens. Studies in the history of Christian thought 41. Leiden: Brill.
Fine, Steven. 2000. “Iconoclasm and the art of late-antique Palestinian synagogues.” In From Dura to Sepphoris: Studies in Jewish art and society in late antiquity. Journal of Roman archaeology, Supplementary series 40, edited by Lee I. Levine and Zeev Weiss, 183–194. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
Flood, Finbarr Barry. 2001. The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture. Islamic history and civilization 33. Leiden: Brill.
Gero, Stephen. 1973. Byzantine Iconoclasm during the Reign of Leo III: With Particular Attention to the Oriental Sources. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium 346, Subsidia 41. Louvain: Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium.
Giakalis, Ambrosios. 2005. Images of the Divine: The Theology of Icons at the Seventh Ecumenical Council. Studies in the history of Christian thought 122. Rev. ed. Leiden: Brill.
Gibb, Hamilton A. R. 1958. “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 12: 219–233.
Grabar, André. 1957. L’ iconoclasme byzantin: Dossier archéologique. Paris: Collège de France.
Grabar, Oleg. 1977. “Islam and Iconoclasm.” In Iconoclasm: Papers given at the ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975, edited by Anthony Bryer and Judith Herrin, 45–52. Birmingham: Centre for Byzantine Studies University of Birmingham.
Griffith, Sidney H. 1997. “Byzantium and the Christians in the World of Islam: Constantinople and the Church in the Holy Land in the Ninth Century.” Medieval Encounters 3: 231–265.
Griffith, Sidney H. 1998. “What has Constantinople to do with Jerusalem? Palestine in the Ninth Century: Byzantine Orthodoxy in the World of Islam.” In Byzantium in the Ninth Century: Dead or Alive?. Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies Publications 5, edited by Leslie Brubaker, 181–194. Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum.
Griffith, Sidney H. 2008. “John of Damascus and the Church in Syria in the Umayyad Era: The Intellectual and Cultural Milieu of Orthodox Christians in the World of Islam.” Hugoye. Journal of Syriac Studies 11, no. 2. Accessed February 28, 2010. http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol11No2/HV11N2Griffith.html.
Hall, Stuart. 1994. Rassismus und kulturelle Identität. Das Argument 226. Hamburg: Argument-Verlag.
Hausammann, Susanne. 2004. Alte Kirche, vol. IV: Das Christusbekenntnis in Ost und West. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.
Helas, Philine. 2003. “Ikonoklasmus.” In Metzler-Lexikon Kunstwissenschaft: Ideen, Methoden, Begriffe, edited by Ulrich Pfisterer, 155–158. Stuttgart: Metzler.
Irmscher, Johannes. 1980. Der byzantinische Bilderstreit: Sozialökonomische Voraussetzungen - ideologische Grundlagen - geschichtliche Wirkungen. Leipzig: Koehler & Amelang.
Jäggi, Carola. 2009. “Das kontrollierte Bild: Auseinandersetzungen um Bedeutung und Gebrauch von Bildern in der christlichen Frühzeit und im Mittelalter.” In Medien unter Kontrolle, edited by Sven Grampp, Daniel Meier, and Sandra Rühr, 18–31. Erlangen: Buchwissenschaft / Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg. Accessed February 28, 2010. http://www.buchwiss.uni-erlangen.de/forschung/publikationen/Medien-unter-Kontrolle.pdf.
King, G. R. D. 1985. “Islam, Iconoclasm, and the Declaration of Doctrine.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 48: 267–277.
Lange, Günter. 2007. “Der byzantinische Bilderstreit und das Bilderkonzil von Nikaia (787).” In Handbuch der Bildtheologie, vol. I: Bild-Konflikte, edited by Reinhard Hoeps, 171–190. Paderborn: Schöningh.
Mango, Cyril. (1972)1993. The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312 – 1453: Sources and Documents. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching 16. Reprint,Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Mansi, Giovanni Domenico. 1960. Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio. Unveränd. Nachdr. d. Ausg. Paris 1901–1927. Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt.
Martin, Edward J. (1930)1978. A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Church Historical Society’s publications 2. Reprint,London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
McClanan, Anne L. and Jeff Johnson, eds. 2005. Negating the Image: Case Studies in Iconoclasm. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Möseneder, Karl, ed. 1997. Streit um Bilder: Von Byzanz bis Duchamp. Berlin: Reimer.
Mundell, Marlia. 1977. “Monophysite Church Decoration.” In Iconoclasm: Papers given at the ninth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, March 1975, edited by Anthony Bryer, and Judith Herrin, 59–74. Birmingham: Centre for Byzantine Studies University of Birmingham.
Naef, Silvia. 2007. Bilder und Bilderverbot im Islam: Vom Koran bis zum Karikaturenstreit. Munich: Beck.
Noble, Thomas F. X. 2009. Images, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians. Philadelphia, Oxford: University of Pennsylvania Press, Oxford Creative Marketing.
Ognibene, Susanna. 2002. Umm al-Rasas: La chiesa di Santo Stefano ed il “Problema iconofobico”. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
Ovadiah, Asher, and Carla Gomez de Silva. 1981. “Supplementum to the Corpus of the Byzantine Churches in the Holy Land, Part I: Newly Discovered Churches.” Levant 13: 200–261.
Ovadiah, Asher, and Ruth Ovadiah. 1987. Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Mosaic Pavements in Israel. Bibliotheca Archaeologica 6. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
Paret, Rudi 1960. “Textbelege zum islamischen Bilderverbot.” In Das Werk des Künstlers: Studien zur Ikonographie und Formgeschichte: Hubert Schrade zum 60. Geburtstag dargebracht von Kollegen und Schülern, edited by Hans Fegers, 36–48. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Paret, Rudi. 1976–77. “Die Entstehungszeit des islamischen Bilderverbots.” Kunst des Orients 11: 158–181.
Piccirillo, Michele. 1993. The Mosaics of Jordan. Amman: American Center of Oriental Research.
Piccirillo, Michele. 1996. “Iconofobia o iconoclastia nelle chiese di Giordania?” In Bisanzio e l’Occidente. Arte, archeologia, storia. Studi in onore di Fernanda de’ Maffei, edited by Claudia Barsanti and Alessandra Acconci, 173–191. Rome: Viella.
Piccirillo, Michele. 1998. “Les mosaïques d’époque omeyyade des églises de la Jordanie.” Syria 75: 263–278.
Piccirillo, Michele. 2002. L’ Arabia cristiana: Dalla provincia imperiale al primo periodo Islamico. Milan: Jaca Book.
Piccirillo, Michele, and Eugenio Alliata. 1994. Umm al-Rasas Mayfa’ah, vol. I: Gli scavi del complesso di Santo Stefano. Jerusalem: Studium Biblicum Franciscanum.
Ribak, Eliya. 2007. Religious Communities in Byzantine Palestina: The Relationship between Judaism, Christianity and Islam, AD 400–700. BAR International series 1646. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Said, Edward W. 1994. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage.
Schick, Robert. 1995. The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeolgical Study. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 2. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press.
Seibel, Klaudia. 2008. “Hybridisierung.” In Metzler Lexikon Literatur- und Kulturtheorie. Ansätze - Personen – Grundbegriffe, 4th ed., edited by Ansgar Nünning, 297. Stuttgart: Metzler.
Shboul, Ahmad, and Alan Walmsley. 1998. “Identity and Self-Image in Syria-Palestine in the Transition from Byzantine to Early Islamic Rule: Arab Christians and Muslims.” Mediterranean Archaeology 11: 255–287.
Shiyyab, Adnan. 2006. Der Islam und der Bilderstreit in Jordanien und Palästina: Archäologische und kunstgeschichtliche Untersuchungen unter Berücksichtigung der "Kirche von Ya’mun". Kunstwissenschaften 14. Munich: Utz.
Speck, Paul. 1990. Ich bin’s nicht, Kaiser Konstantin ist es gewesen: Die Legenden vom Einfluß des Teufels, des Juden und des Moslem auf den Ikonoklasmus. Poikila Byzantina 10. Bonn: Habelt.
Stam, Robert. 1999. “Palimpsestic Aesthetics: A Meditation on Hybridity and Garbage.” In Performing Hybridity, edited by Joseph May and Jennifer Natalya Fink, 59–78. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Stock, Alex. 2007. “Frühchristliche Bildpolemik. Das Neue Testament und die Polemik des 2. Jahrhunderts.” In Handbuch der Bildtheologie, vol. I: Bild-Konflikte, edited by Reinhard Hoeps, 120–138. Paderborn: Schöningh.
Thomsen, Christian W, ed. 1994. Hybridkultur: Bildschirmmedien und Evolutionsformen der Künste: Annäherungen an ein interdisziplinäres Problem. Arbeitshefte Bildschirmmedien 46. Siegen: DFG Sonderforschungsbereich 240.
Tschernokoshewa, Elka, and Marija Juri-Pahor. 2005. Auf der Suche nach hybriden Lebensgeschichten: Theorie - Feldforschung - Praxis. Hybride Welten 3. Münster: Waxmann.
Tzaferis, Vassilios. 1984. “The Early Christian Basilica of Kursi.” In Actes du Xe Congrès International d’Archéologie Chrétienne, Thessalonique 28 septembre – 4 octobre 1980. Πρακτικά τoυ 10oυ Διεθνoύς Συνεδρίoυ Χριστιανικής Aρχαιoλoγίας, Θεσσαλoνίκη 28 Σεπτεμβρίoυ – 4 Oκτoβρίoυ 1980, vol. II: Communications, B’: Aνακoινώσεις, 605–611. Studi di antichità cristiana 27. Città del Vaticano, Thessaloniki.
Tzaferis, Vassilios. 1993. “The Early Christian Monastery at Kursi.” In Ancient Churches Revealed, edited by Yoram Tsafrir, 77–79. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
van Reenen, Dan. 1990. “The Bilderverbot: A New Survey.” Der Islam 67: 27–77.
Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich. 1955–56. “The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II. A.D. 721.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 9–10: 23–47.
Wüstenfeld, Ferdinand. 1860. Geschichte der Stadt Medina im Auszuge aus dem Arabischen des Samhûdi. Abhandlungen der K. Ges. d. Wiss. zu Göttingen 9. Göttingen: Dieterich.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Verstegen, U. (2012). Adjusting the Image – Processes of Hybridization in Visual Culture: A Perspective from Early Christian and Byzantine Archaeology. In: Stockhammer, P. (eds) Conceptualizing Cultural Hybridization. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21846-0_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21846-0_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-21845-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-21846-0
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)