Images That Kill: Counterinsurgency and Photography in Angola Circa 1961

Ramos, Afonso Dias

doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27795-5_12

Afonso Dias Ramos⁵

Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies ((CIPCSS))

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Abstract

This chapter explores the drastically overlooked nexus between atrocity photography and mass insurgency during the endgame of European colonial empires across Africa. Specifically, it addresses the most widely reproduced and most consequential set of photographs in the Portuguese empire, graphically depicting and exposing the bloody incidents behind the outbreak of the decolonization war in Angola in 1961. The largest campaign of atrocity photography in the world and the largest military effort of any Western nation in the last half of the twentieth century were then intimately bound. Unaddressed and unchallenged for decades, and yet still customarily used to frame the narrative or to shut down any discussion on the colonial past, this chapter attempts to reconstruct the trajectory of those hundreds of readily available, shocking black-and-white photographs in terms of their production and circulation, teasing out some of the crucial political, moral, and historiographic questions that they continue to raise.

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Notes

1.
“Letter to Mr. George M. Houser, American Committee on Africa”, 22 July 1961, Clayborne Carson and Tenisha Armstrong (eds.), The Papers of Martin Luther King Jr., Vol. VII, Oakland: University of California Press, 2014, p. 255.
2.
Idem.
3.
José Saramago, “O Factor Deus”, Público, 18 September 2001.
4.
Marie-José Mondzain, “Can Images Kill?”, Critical Inquiry, vol. 36, n. 1, Autumn 2009, p. 20.
5.
Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2003.
6.
Martin Thomas, “Repression, reprisals and rhetorics of massacre in Algeria’s war”, Martin Thomas and Richard Toye (eds.), Rhetorics of Empire: Languages of colonial conflict after 1900, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017, pp. 166–171.
7.
Worthy exceptions include, e.g. Emma Kuby, “A War of Words over an Image of War: The Fox Movietone Scandal and the Portrayal of French Violence in Algeria, 1955–1956”, French Politics, Culture & Society, vol. 30, n. 1, Spring 2012, pp. 46–67; and Annie E. Coombes, “Photography against the grain: rethinking the colonial archive in Kenyan museums”, World Art, vol. 6, 2016, pp. 61–83.
8.
Robert B. Edgerton, Mau Mau: An African Crucible, New York: Free Press, 1989.
9.
Fabian Klose, Human Rights in the Shadow of Colonial Violence: The Wars of Independence in Kenya and Algeria, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013, p. 204.
10.
Terence Gavaghan, placed on trial in 2011 for human rights abuses in Kenya, admitted to “the mistake of having horrific published pictures of Mau Mau brutalities pinned inside the lorries carrying them” to detainment camps. Of Lions and Dung Beetles, Devon: Arthur H. Stockwell, 1999, p. 187.
11.
James D. Le Sueur, Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the Decolonization of Algeria, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005, p. 197.
12.
Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962, New York: New York Review of Books, 2006.
13.
Jean-Marie Le Pen, Les Français d’abord, Paris: Carrère-Michel Lafon, 1984, p. 42.
14.
The report is transcribed in full in Bernardo Teixeira, A fabric of terror: three days in Angola, New York: Devin-Adair, 1965, pp. 128–138.
15.
Susan Sontag, On Photography, London: Penguin Books, 1977.
16.
Ernst Jünger, Siebzig verweht I, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980, p. 479.
17.
In 1961, the RTP television channel in Portugal broadcasted 9.30 hours of footage of Angola. Vasco Hogan Teves, História da Televisão em Portugal, 1955/1979, Lisboa: TV Guia Editora, 1998, p. 114.
18.
“Exposição das Fotografias de Atrocidades Cometidas no Norte de Angola”, Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, July–September 1961, p. 316.
19.
For example, Quirino Simões’s Angola na Guerra e no Progresso (2010). For more, see Jorge António and Maria do Carmo Piçarra, Angola–O nascimento de uma nação, Lisboa: Guerra e Paz, 2013, p. 29.
20.
Maria José Lobo Antunes, Regressos quase perfeitos: memórias da guerra em Angola, Lisboa: Tinta da China, 2015.
21.
John Seiler, Southern Africa since the Portuguese Coup, Boulder: Westview Press, 1980, p. 20.
22.
Présence Africaine, Issue 45, 1963, p. 114.
23.
“Quando o País mergulhou na Guerra,” Correio da Manhã, 15 March 2011.
24.
Testimony in Joaquim Furtado’s documentary, A Guerra, Episode 3, RTP Productions (2010).
25.
René Pélissier, Explorar—Voyages en Angola et autres lieux incertains, Orgeval: Pelissier, 1979, p. 126.
26.
Manuel Acácio, A balada do ultramar, Cruz Quebrada: Oficina do Livro, 2009, p. 121.
27.
Almeida Santos (ed.), Luanda 61, Luanda: Neográfica, 1961, n.p.
28.
Diana Andringa, “Crescer em tempo de guerra”, Aniceto Afonso and Carlos de Matos Gomes (eds.), Guerra colonial, Lisboa: Notícias Editorial, 2000, p. 334.
29.
John Berger, “Photographs of Agony”, About Looking, New York: Pantheon, 1986, pp. 37–40.
30.
Maria José Lobo Antunes, Regressos quase perfeitos: memórias da guerra em Angola, Lisboa: Tinta da China, 2015, p. 240.
31.
Leonel Cosme, A revolta: a hora final, Porto: Edições Afrontamento, 1983, p. 45.
32.
Luiz Iglezias, A verdade sôbre Angola, Rio de Janeiro: Gráfica Nossa Senhora de Fátima, 1961, pp. 87–89.
33.
“Angola: Ripening Whirlwind”, The Economist, 11 February 1961.
34.
For a robust exception, see Diogo Ramada Curto, Bernardo Pinto da Cruz and Teresa Furtado, Políticas coloniais em tempo de revoltas: Angola circa 1961, Porto: Afrontamento, 2016.
35.
Manuel Alegre, Jornada de África, Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 2007, pp. 11–12.
36.
Viana de Lemos, Duas Crises: 1961 e 1974, Lisboa: Edições Nova Gente, 1977, p. 34. In the same book, Viana de Lemos wrote of his contacts with the CIA and BND going back to 4 March 1961, and denounced that the very urgent telegram he sent to the top military figure in Portugal, Beleza Ferraz, then visiting Angola, to warn of the upcoming attack, had been sabotaged by an unknown party.
37.
See, for instance, José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O Leão e a Raposa, Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 2013, p. 174.
38.
See José Pedro Monteiro, Portugal e a questão do trabalho forçado: um império sob escrutínio (1944–1962), Lisboa: Edições 70, 2018.
39.
Henrique Galvão, Report on Native Problems in the Portuguese Colonies, Lisboa: Ministério das Colónias, 1947.
40.
See José Freire Antunes, Kennedy e Salazar: O Leão e a Raposa, Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 2013.
41.
Dalila Cabrita Mateus and Álvaro Mateus, Angola 61. Guerra Colonial: causas e consequências, Lisboa: Leya, 2011.
42.
René Pelissier, Le Naufrage des Caravelles, 1979, p. 108.
43.
Marcello Caetano, Depoimento, Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1974, p. 223.
44.
Cited in David Martelo, op. cit., p. 63.
45.
João Nogueira Garcia, a settler forced to take up arms after being forbidden to leave the area under attack in Angola, later refused an award for bravery from the colonial regime by claiming that it “did nothing to warn us about the imminence of a treacherous attack that did not spare women nor children and now, hypocritically, as owners of the Fatherland’s moral values, decide which of the Portuguese involved in this tragedy were heroes or cowards”. Quitexe 61 —Uma Tragédia Anunciada—O Velho Cazenza e Outras Histórias, Lousã: Tip. Lousanense, 2003, p. 94.
46.
David Martelo, A Imprevidência Estratégica de Salazar: Timor (1941), Angola (1961), Lisboa: Sílabo, 2015.
47.
Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses, Salazar—A Political Biography, New York: Enigma Books, 2010.
48.
John Cann, The Flechas: Insurgent Hunting in Eastern Angola, 1965–1974, London: Helion and Company, 2014, p. 14.
49.
Direcção dos Serviços de Censura, “Boletim da Direcção dos Serviços de Censura n. 6/61”, 18 September 1961, Classified, Folder 07419.002.006, Fund: DJL, Fundação Mário Soares, Lisbon.
50.
See Afonso Dias Ramos, ““Rarely penetrated by camera or film”—NBC’s Angola: Journey to War (1961)”, Maria do Carmo Piçarra and Teresa Castro (eds.), (Re)Imagining African Independence: Film, Visual Arts and the Fall of the Portuguese Empire, London: Peter Lang, 2017, pp. 111–130.
51.
See Aida Freudenthal, “A Baixa de Cassanje: algodão e revolta”, Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos, Nos. 18–22, 1995–1999, pp. 245–283.
52.
“Four Correspondents Expelled /Protest after Luanda Shooting”, The Guardian, 11 February 1961.
53.
TIME, 17 February 1961, p. 24.
54.
Mort Rosenblum, Coups and Earthquakes, New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1981, p. 99.
55.
Robert Pesquet, Les Derniers Blancs d’Afrique: Defenseurs de l’Occident dans le Dernier Bastion, Lisieux: Author’s edition, 1961.
56.
Ronald Waring, The War in Angola. Views of a Revolt: The Case for Portugal, Lisboa: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1961.
57.
Jonathon Green and Nicholas Karolides (eds.), Encylopedia of Censorship, New York: Facts on File, p. 526.
58.
Ernst Jünger, Siebzig verweht I, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980, p. 479.
59.
René Pelissier, “État de la littérature militaire relative à l’Afrique australe portugaise”, Revue Française d’Études Politiques Africaines, No. 74, February 1972, p. 77.
60.
Pereira da Costa, Um mês de terrorismo: Angola. Março-Abril de 1961, Lisboa: Polis, 1969, n.p.
61.
Idem.
62.
Caio, op. cit., 1961, p. 49.
63.
Genève-Afrique, vol. 5, 1966, p. 97.
64.
Amândio César, Angola 1961, Lisboa: Verbo, 1961, p. 61.
65.
Susie Linfield, The Cruel Radiance: Photography and Political Violence, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2010, p. 131.
66.
João Paulo Guerra, Memória das guerras coloniais, Porto: Afrontamento, 1994, p. 183.
67.
These photographs were sent from Lisbon to New York by the Minister Franco Nogueira to the delegate Vasco Garin, on 27 April 1961, with the express purpose of being displayed at the UN.
68.
Vasco Garin speaking at the UN Security Council meeting, 7 June 1961.
69.
Robert Ruark, “Preface” in Teixeira, The Fabric of Terror, p. viii.
70.
On 24 March 1962, in Middlebury, Vermont, Albert Gore called for a closer look at the aid paid to Portugal to ensure that it was not used to “kill, punish, or intimidate Africans”.
71.
AN/TT SNI, Box 2908. National Archive of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon.
72.
G. Edward Griffin, The grand design: a lecture on U.S. foreign policy, Thousand Oaks: Grand Design, 1968.
73.
On the Morning of March 15, Boston: Portuguese-American Committee on Foreign Affairs, 1961.
74.
See Erling Jorstad, The Politics of Doomsday: Fundamentalists of the Far Right, New York: Abingdon, 1970, p. 163.
75.
The Citizen: Official Journal of the Citizens’ Councils of America, vol. 6, Jackson: Citizens’ Council, 1961, p. 32.
76.
“PICTURES OUR NATIONAL PRESS REFUSED TO PUBLISH”, Combat, No. 6, May–June 1960, p. 5.
77.
Idem.
78.
See Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses and Robert McNamara, The White Redoubt, the Great Powers and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1960–1980, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
79.
See, e.g. William G. Simpson, Which Way Western Man?, Washington: National Alliance, 1978.
80.
Pepetela, Mayombe, Lisboa: Edições 70, 1980, p. 40.
81.
Mário Brochado Coelho, Lágrimas de Guerra, Porto: Edições Afrontamento, 1989, p. 122.
82.
Daily Mirror, 3 May 1961.
83.
“Angola protest by missionaries”, The Guardian, 19 June 1961.
84.
Sunday Telegraph, 20 July 1961.
85.
Anais da Câmara dos Deputados, Rio de Janeiro: Departamento de Imprensa Nacional, 1961, p. 635.
86.
Sidney Gilchrist, Angola Awake, Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1968, p. 50.
87.
Etelvino da Silva Batista, Diário de guerra: Angola 1961–63, Lisboa: Três Sinais, 2000, p. 19.
88.
Nogueira e Carvalho, Era tempo de morrer em África, Lisboa: Prefácio, 2004, p. 97.
89.
Manuel José Homem de Mello, Cartas de Salazar a Craveiro Lopes, 1951–1958, Lisboa: Edições 70, 1990, p. 237.
90.
Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Portugal, Washington, April 23, 1961, 3:55 p.m.
91.
Douglas Wheeler, “Independent scholar conquers a military history battlefield-but who will follow?” A review essay in honour of Dr. Rene Pelissier”, Portuguese Studies Review, vol. 12, n. 2, Winter-Spring 2004–2005, pp. 245–261.
92.
Basil Davidson, Angola, 1961: The Factual Record, London: UDC, 1961.
93.
UN Resolution S/4835, 9 June 1961.
94.
National Council of Churches Press Release, “Open Letter to The President and People of Portugal”, 5 June 1961.
95.
Portugal Replies in the United Nations, Lisboa: Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, 1970, p. 222.
96.
Interview with Salazar, The New York Times, 31 May 1961.
97.
Cited in Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses and Robert McNamara, The White Redoubt, the Great Powers and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1960–1980, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, p. 30.
98.
Basil Davidson, Angola, 1961: The Factual Record, London: UDC Publication, 1961, p. 1.
99.
Portuguese Major José Ervedosa, for instance, a witness at the UN Decolonisation Committee in 1961, called for the establishment of a tribunal on the lines of the Bertrand Russell War Crimes Tribunal that investigated the US atrocities in Vietnam.
100.
Protesting the data overload on the insurgency, José Pires wrote in 1975: “What I do not know of is a work reporting on the atrocities by the Portuguese army and white settlers. … I became aware that the Angolan war was a long story of massacres, very similar to a genocide.” Angola! Angola!: testemunho sobre o problema colonial, Lisboa: O Emigrante-Voz de Portugal, 1975, p. 82.
101.
On Kenya, see Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya, New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2005; and David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005. On Algeria, see Denise Barrat and Robert Barrat, Algérie, 1956: livre blanc sur la répression: documents, Paris: Éditions de l’aube, 2001; and Michel de Jaeghere, Le livre blanc de l’armée française en Algérie, Paris: Contretemps, 2001.
102.
Sven Öste, “Skoningslös offensiv i Angola”, Dagens Nyheter, 16 June 1961. Cited in Tor Sellström, Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa, Vol. I, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1999, p. 387.
103.
Testimony in Joaquim Furtado’s documentary A Guerra, Ep. 3 (2010).
104.
Radio interview with Dick Elman, WBAI-FM, New York, 18 November 1961. This has been retranslated into English from the Portuguese translation provided to Salazar, in AN/TT, Arquivo de Salazar, AOS/CO/UL. National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon.
105.
René Pelissier suggests, without evidence, that in some cases, the sticks were purposefully inserted on vaginas to make the pictures of corpses look even more shocking. René Pélissier, op. cit., p. 535, n. 22.
106.
This happened, for instance, in Carmona, as described in Pires et al., Braseiro da Morte, p. 85.
107.
Peter Benenson, Persecution 1961, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961.
108.
IAN/TT, Arquivos da PIDE, Processo 16. 10. A, Terrorismo. Del. Angola, NT. 1210. National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon.
109.
A FNLA em Angola, Luanda: Ministério de Informação da República Popular de Angola, 1975.
110.
Anonymous, “África adeus... A Província que se segue ANGOLA”, Bandarra, 28 September 1974, p. 7. See also Reis Ventura, Capim no sangue atraiçoado, Lisboa: Fernando Pereira, 1977.
111.
The review in question is Lucinda Canelas, “As fotografias são objectos difíceis e as dos impérios coloniais ainda mais”, Público, 13 December 2014.
112.
Hugo Navarro, “Os massacres de 1961 no Norte de Angola”, O Diabo, 16 July 2015.
113.
Idem.
114.
Lloyd Garrison, “Now Angola: Study of a Rebel”, The New York Times, 16 February 1964.
115.
Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, Alvorada em Abril, Lisboa: Bertrand, 1977, p. 34.
116.
Carlos Coutinho, O Que agora Me Inquieta, Lisboa: Livros Horizonte, 1985, p. 80.
117.
Albano Moreira da Silva, “Cortaram cabeças e espetaram-nas em paus”, Correio da Manhã, 25 June 2014.
118.
Lucinda Canelas and Isabel Salema, “Relatório militar revela que tropas portuguesas participaram em decapitações”, Público, 16 December 2012.
119.
An excerpt of the document was first published in Marcelo Bittencourt, “Modernidade e atraso na luta de libertação angolana”, Daniel Aarão Reis and Denis Rolland (eds.), Modernidades Alternativas, Rio de Janeiro: Editôra FGV, 2008, pp. 277–294, and later reproduced in full in António Araújo, “Sanzala Mihinjo, Abril de 1961”, Miguel Bandeira Jerónimo (ed.), O Império Colonial em Questão, Lisboa: Edições 70, 2012, pp. 37–53.
120.
See, e.g. Mustafah Dhadha, The Portuguese Massacre of Wiriyamu in Colonial Mozambique, 1964–2013, New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016; Inês Nascimento Rodrigues, Espectros de Batepá. Memórias e narrativas do “Massacre de 1953” em São Tomé e Príncipe, Lisboa: Edições Afrontamento, 2018.
121.
Mário Moutinho de Pádua, op. cit.
122.
The reports written for the newspaper Expressen were later collected in Anders Enhmark and Per Wästberg, Angola and Mozambique: The Case Against Portugal, London: Pall Mall Press, 1963.
123.
New York Post, August 27, 1961
124.
Richard Beeston, Looking for Trouble: The Life and Times of a Foreign Correspondent, London: Tauris Parke, 2006, pp. 71–72.
125.
Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, New York: Penguin Books, 2017, p. 67.
126.
Cited in Mark Curtis, The Ambiguities of Power: British Foreign Policy since 1945, London: Zed Press, 1995, p. 62.
127.
Eduardo dos Santos, Maza: elementos da etno-história para a interpretação do terrorismo no noroeste de Angola, Lisboa: E. Santos, 1965.
128.
As Bebiana de Almeida remarked, “Across the whole region of Dembos, the only thing I could see were chopped heads stuck on poles.” Letter to Amílcar Cabral, November 1961. “Memorando sobre repressão colonial em Angola. Folder: 04611.062.013, Fund: DAC, Fundação Mário Soares, Lisbon.
129.
“Atrocidades da Guerra Colonial. As fotografias censuradas”, Notícias Magazine, No. 199, 17 March 1996, pp. 1–26.
130.
Ângela Campos, An Oral History of the Portuguese Colonial War, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017, p. 58.
131.
João Vaz, “Experiências traumatizantes vividas em África”, Correio da Manhã, 11 June 2007.
132.
See Américo Barreiros, A Verdade Sobre os Acontecimentos de Angola, Carmona: Tip. Angolana, 1961, p. 25; António Telo, Angola, Terra Nossa: diário do terrorismo, Lisboa: Tip. Lisbonense, 1962; or Felícia Cabrita, Massacres em África, Lisboa: Esfera dos Livros, 2008, p. 132.
133.
Manuel Graça, Angola 60–65: A Surpresa, A Guerra, A Recuperação, Luanda: Edições SPAL, 1966, n.p.
134.
I have commented on this series of photographs in Joana Pontes’s film Visões do Império (2020).
135.
Artur Maciel, Angola heróica: 120 dias com os nossos soldados, Lisboa: Bertrand, 1963, p. 219.
136.
Carmona da Mota wrote, for instance: “White reaction […] Thousands of blacks, suspect or not, were executed. They filled up a pit with corpses; then ditches on banana plantations. Civilians were invited to watch; the machine guns sang, as blacks walked in a single file and fell down. Today, it is recommended that tractors do not dig too deeply. When they ran out of space, they moved over to the airfield. Bulldozers dug out the pits, and machine guns executed blacks walking alongside. Then the bulldozers covered them up. Later, to save ammunitions, they were pistol-whipped and buried, unconscious but still alive.” Cartas de um médico na guerra de Angola, Lisboa: Ed. Autor, 2013, n.p.
137.
René Pelissier, “État de la littérature militaire relative à l’Afrique australe portugaise”, Revue Française d’Études Politiques Africaines, February 1972, pp. 58–89.
138.
Almeida Santos (ed.), Angola Mártir, Lisboa: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1961.
139.
Testimony of lieutenant Fernando Robles in João Garção Borges’s documentary Ultramar, Angola 1961–1963, Acetato and RTP Productions (1999).
140.
As captioned in the original RTP television film footage.
141.
See Vasco Garin’s speech at the UN Security Council, 7 July 1961.
142.
Bernardo Teixeira, op. cit.
143.
Américo Barreiros, op. cit.
144.
Amândio César, op. cit.
145.
Reis Ventura, Sangue no capim: cenas da guerra em Angola, Lisboa: Ed. do Autor, 1962, p. 41.
146.
Horácio Caio, op. cit.
147.
Luiz Iglezias, A verdade sôbre Angola, Rio de Janeiro: Gráfica Nossa Senhora de Fátima, 1961.
148.
This is one of four pictures of March 15 presented as a Baluba massacre in Katanga, between 1960 and 1961, in Philippa Schuyler, Who killed the Congo?, New York: Devin-Adair Co., 1962.
149.
See Man Singh Deora, Role of India in Angola’s Freedom Struggle, New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1995, p. 313.
150.
Marie-José Mondzain, op. cit., p. 24.
151.
Marie-José Mondzain, Le commerce des regards, Paris: Seuil, 2003, p. 146.

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Afonso Dias Ramos

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Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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Afonso Dias Ramos

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Ramos, A.D. (2023). Images That Kill: Counterinsurgency and Photography in Angola Circa 1961. In: Vicente, F.L., Ramos, A.D. (eds) Photography in Portuguese Colonial Africa, 1860–1975. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27795-5_12

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