Abstract
Techno-industrial society and modern cities as presently conceived are inherently unsustainable. This conclusion flows from the energy and material dynamics of growing cities interpreted in light of the second law of thermodynamics. In second law terms, cities are self-organizing, far-from-equilibrium dissipative structures whose “self-organization” is utterly dependent on access to abundant energy and material resources. Cities are also open, growing, dependent subsystems of the materially-closed nongrowing ecosphere—they produce themselves and grow by feeding on energy and matter extracted from their host ecosystems. Indeed, high-income consumer cities are concentrated nodes of material consumption and waste production that parasitize large areas of productive ecosystems and waste sinks lying far outside the cities. The latter constitute the cities’ true “ecological footprints.” In effect, thermodynamic law dictates that cities can increase their own local structure and complexity (negentropy) only by increasing the disorder and randomness (entropy) in their host system, the ecosphere. The problem is that anthropogenic degradation now exceeds ecospheric regeneration and threatens to undermine the very urban civilization causing it. To achieve sustainability, global society must rebalance production and consumption, abandon the growth ethic, relocalize our economies and increase urban-regional self-reliance, all of which fly in the face of prevailing global development ideology.
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- 1.
Even preagricultural humans significantly altered energy and material flows through ecosystems by virtue of large per capita energy demands and group living. This necessarily affected biodiversity. As Diamond (1992) writes: “For every area of the world that paleontologists have studied and that humans first reached within the last fifty thousand years, human arrival approximately coincided with massive prehistoric extinctions.” Pimm et al. (1995) estimate “that with only Stone Age technology, the Polynesians exterminated >2,000 bird species, some ∼15% of the world total.”
- 2.
Renegade economist Georgescu-Roegan (1971a, b) was among the first to understand the implications of the second law for the human economy. Starting from the fact that all economic activity must draw low entropy resources out of nature and dump useless high entropy waste back in, he reasoned first that “…in a finite space there can be only a finite amount of low entropy and, second, that low entropy continuously and irrevocably dwindles away.” He further speculated that since modern humans are unlikely to practice restraint in their use of resources, nature and human nature may combine to ensure that “…the destiny of man is to have a short but fiery, exciting, and extravagant life…” (Georgescu-Roegen 1975). This view naturally remains controversial with opponents relying on resource substitutions and human technological ingenuity to defeat such second-law pessimism.
- 3.
For example, as much as a third of pollution and landscape degradation in China is attributable to manufacturing for blissfully unaware consumers in the wealthy cities of North America, Europe, etc.
- 4.
For fuller details of the method, including inclusions, exceptions and limitations, see Rees (2006), WWF (2008, 2010), and www.footprintnetwork.org/atlas.
- 5.
Urban eco-footprints are more difficult to estimate than national EFs. National EFs are based on data routinely collected by government statistical agencies and international (e.g., UN) organizations, but no such agencies monitor trade across municipal boundaries. In the absence of original local data-gathering capacity, city EFs can be based on the national per capita estimate adjusted for local variations in income, energy sources, lifestyles, etc.
- 6.
The terrestrial area of Japan is only about 37,770,000 ha but Japan’s terrestrial ecosystems are considerably more productive than the world average. This increases the country’s bio-capacity to about 89,000,000 gha.
- 7.
- 8.
One must also ask how we could accommodate urbanized nations that are deeply in ecological debt. Remember Tokyo and Japan? Globalization has enabled that country to grow and run such a large ecological deficit that it would be impossible to create a viable bioregional “City State of Tokyo” even if we could ignore Japan’s other 95 million inhabitants and had access to the entire country! (Other mega-cities and their home states face similar problems).
- 9.
That said, the example of Tokyo illustrates that some form of trade will be necessary even as the balance tilts toward greater self-reliance.
- 10.
There is already a precedent. In April 2009, a military-backed popular uprising toppled the government of Madagascar when the citizenry learned their leaders had entered a long-term lease agreement for much of their nation’s farmland with the Daewoo Corporation of South Korea. Madagascar’s new government canceled the agreement.
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Rees, W.E. (2012). Cities as Dissipative Structures: Global Change and the Vulnerability of Urban Civilization. In: Weinstein, M., Turner, R. (eds) Sustainability Science. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3188-6_12
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