Abstract
We review various aspects of the notion of scale applied to natural systems, in particular complex adaptive systems. We argue that scaling issues are not only crucial from the standpoint of basic science, but also in many applied issues, and discuss tools for detecting and dealing with multiple scales, both spatial and temporal. We also suggest that the techniques of statistical mechanics, which have been successful in describing many emergent patterns in physical systems, can also prove useful in the study of complex adaptive systems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Amaral, L., S. Buldyrev, S. Havlin, H. Leschhon, P. Maas, H. E. Stanley and M. Stanley (1997), ‘Scaling Behavior in Economics. I. Empirical Results for Company Growth’, Journal de Physique 7, 621–633.
Andow, D. A., P. M. Kareiva, S. A. Levin and A. Okubo (1990), ‘Spread of Invading Organisms’, Landscape Ecology 4, 177–188.
Arnol’d., V. I. (1986), Catastrophe Theory. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 108 pp.
Arrhenius, O. (1921), ‘Species and Area’, Journal of Ecology 9, 95–99.
Arrow, K., G. Daily, P. Dasgupta, S. Levin, K.-G. Maler, E. Maskin, D. Starrett, T. Sterner and T. Toetenberg (2000), ‘Managing Ecosystem Resources’, Environmental Science and Technology 34, 1401–1406. Website http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ES990672T.
Bak, P. and K. Sneppen (1993), ‘Punctuated Equilibrium and Criticality in a Simple Model of Evolution’, Physical Review Letters 71, 4083–4086.
Bak, P., C. Tang and K. Wiesenfeld (1988), ‘Self-organized Criticality’, Physical Review A 38, 364–374.
Barabási, A.-L., S. V. Buldyrev, H. E. Stanley and B. Suki (1996), ‘Avalanches in the Lung: A Statistical Mechanical Model’, Physical Review Letters 76, 2192–2195.
Batchelor, G. K. (1953). The Theory of Homogeneous Turbulence. Cambridge University Press.
Binney, J. J., N. J. Dowrick, A. J. Fisher and M. E. J. Newman (1992), The Theory of Critical Phenomena-An Introduction to the Renormalization Group. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, Clarendon Press, 464 pp.
Bogoliubov, N. N. (1946), Studies in Statistical Mechanics, in J. de Boer and G. E. Uhlenbeck, eds. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Bogoliubov, N. N. and D. V. Shirkov (1959), Introduction to the Theory of Quantized Fields. New York: Interscience Publishers, 720 pp.
Bouchaud, J.-P. and M. Potters (2000), Theory of Financial Risks. Cambridge University Press.
Broadbent, S. R. and J. M. Hammersley (1957), ‘Percolation Processes’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 53, 629–645.
Brock (1999), ‘Scaling in Economics: A Reader’s Guide’, Industrial and Corporate Change 8, 409–446.
Brown, J. H. and M. V. Lomolino (1998), Biogeography. Sinauer: Sunderland Mass.
Buttel, L., R. Durrett and S. Levin (2002), ‘Competition and Species Packing in Patchy Environments’, Theoretical Population Biology 61, 265–276.
Calder III, W. A. (1984), Size, Function, and Life History. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.
Carpenter, S. R., D. Ludwig and W. A. Brock (1999), ‘Management of Eutrophication for Lakes Subject to Potentially Irreversible Change’, Ecological Applications 9, 751–771.
Chave, J., M. Dubios and B. Riéra (2001), ‘Estimation of Biomass in a Neotropical Forest of French Guiana: Spatial and Temporal Variability’, Journal of Tropical Ecology 17, 79–96.
Chave, J., H. Muller-Landau and S. Levin (2002), ‘Comparing Classical Community Models: Theoretical Consequences for Patterns of Diversity’, American Naturalist 159, 1–23.
Clark, J. S. C. Fastie, G. Hurtt, S. T. Jackson, C. Johnson, G. King and M. Lewis (1998) ‘Reid’s Paradox of Rapid Plant Migration’, BioScience 48, 13–24.
Clark, J. S. (1998), ‘Why Trees Migrate So Fast: Confronting Theory with Dispersal Biology and the Paleorecord’, American Naturalist 152, 204–224.
Connor, E. F. and E. D. McCoy (1979), ‘The Statistics and Biology of the Species-area Relationship’, American Naturalist 113, 791–833.
Crawley, M. J. and J. E. Harral (2001), ‘Scale Dependence in Plant Biodiversity’, Science 291, 864–868.
Durlauf, S. (1993), ‘Nonergodic Economic Growth’, Review of Economic Studies 60, 349–366.
Durrett, R. and S. Levin (1994), ‘Stochastic Spatial Models: A User’s Guide to Ecological Applications’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 343, 329–350.
Durrett, R. and S. A. Levin (1996), ‘Spatial Models for Species-area Curves’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 179, 119–127.
Earn, D., S. Levin and P. Rohani (2000), ‘Coherence and Conservation’, Science 290, 1360–1363.
Enquist, B. J., J. H. Brown and G. H. West (1998), ‘Allometric Scaling of Plant Energentics and Population Density’, Nature 395, 163–165.
Ferziger, J. H. and H. G. Kaper (1972), Mathematical Theory of Transport Processes in Gas. Amsterdam, London: North-Holland Publishing Company, 579 pp.
Fisher, F. M. and A. Ando (1971), ‘Two Theorems on “Ceteris Paribus” in the Analysis of Dynamic Systems’, in H. M. Blalock Jr., ed., Causal Models in the Social Sciences (pp. 190–199). Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.
Flierl, G., D. Grünbaum, S. Levin and D. Olson (1999), ‘From Individuals to Aggregations: The Interplay between Behavior and Physics’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 196, 397–454.
Fortuin, C. M. and P. W. Kastelyn (1972), ‘On the Random Cluster Model, I. Introduction and Relation to Other Models’, Physica 57, 536–564.
Fragoso, J. (1997), ‘Tapir-generated Seed Shadows: Scale-dependent Patchiness’, Journal of Ecology 85, 519–529.
Frisch, U. (1995), Turbulence: The Legacy of A.N. Kolmogorov. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 296 pp.
Gell-Mann, M. (1994), The Quark and the Jaguar. New York: Freeman and Co.
Gentry, A. H. (1992), ‘Tropical Forest Diversity: Distributional Patterns and Their Conservational Significance’, Oikos 63, 19–28.
Grassberger, P. and A. de la Torre (1979), Reggeon Field Theory (Schlogl’s First Model) on a Lattice: Monte-Carlo Calculations of Critical Behaviour’, Annals of Physics 122, 373.
Guckenheimer, J. (2000), Numerical computation of canards. Website http://www.cam.cornell.edu/guckenheimer/timescale.html.
Harris, T. E. (1974), ‘Contact Interactions on a Lattice’, Annals of Probability 2, 969.
Harte, J., A. Kinzig and J. Green (1999), ‘Self-similarity in the Abundance of Species’, Science 284, 334–336.
Hastings, H. M. and G. Sugihara (1993), Fractals. A User’s Guide for the Natural Sciences. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, Oxford University Press, 235 pp.
Haury, L. R., J. A. McGowan and P. H. Wiebe (1978), ‘Patterns and Processes in the Time-space Scales of Plankton Distributions’, in J. H. Steele, ed., Spatial Pattern in Plankton Communities (pp. 277–327). New York, U.S.A.: Plenum.
Hinrichsen, H. (2000), ‘Nonequilibrium Critical Phenomena and Phase Transitions into Absorbing States’, Advances of Physics 49, 815. Available online at http://xxx.lanl.gov (Los Alamos e-archive), section Condensed Matter, number cond-mat/0001070, 153 pp.
Horn, H. S. (2000), ‘Twigs, Trees, and the Dynamics of Carbon in the Landscape’, in J. H. Brown and G. B. West, eds., Scaling in Biology (pp. 199–220). Santa Fe Institute, Oxford University Press, 352 pp.
Hubbell, S. P. (1997), ‘A Unified Theory of Biogeography and Relative Species Abundance and Its Application to Tropical Rain Forests and Coreal Reefs’, Coral Reefs 16, S9–S21.
Ijiri, Y. (1971), ‘Fundamental Queries in Aggregation Theory’, Journal of the American Statistical Association 66, 766–782.
Ijiri, Y. and H. Simon (1977), Skew Distributions and the Size of Business Firms. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Iwasa, Y., S. A. Levin and V. Andreasen (1987), ‘Aggregation in Model Ecosystems. I. Perfect Aggregation’, Ecological Modelling 37, 287–302.
Iwasa, Y., S. A. Levin and V. Andreasen (1989), ‘Aggregation in Model Ecosystems. II. Approximate Aggregation’, IMA Journal of Mathematics Applied in Medicine 6, 1–23.
Jacob, F. (1977), ‘Evolution and Tinkering’, Science 196, 1161–1166.
Kadanoff, L. P. (1966), ‘Scaling Laws for Ising Models near T c ’, Physics 2, 263.
Kauffman, S. (1993), The Origins of Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kesten, H. (1980), ‘The Critical Probability for Bond Percolation on the Square Lattice Equals 1/2’, Communications in Mathematical Physics 74, 41–59.
Kinzig, A. P., S. A. Levin, J. Dushoff and S. W. Pacala (1999), ‘Limiting Similarity, Species Packing, and System Stability for Hierarchical Competition-colonization Models’, American Naturalist 153, 371–383.
Kolmogorov, A. N. (1941), ‘The Local Structure of Turbulence in Incompressible Viscous Fluid for Very Large Reynolds Number’, Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences URSS 30, 301.
Levin, S. A. (1979), ‘Non-uniform Stable Solutions to Reaction-diffusion Equations: Applications to Ecological Pattern Formation’, in H. Haken, ed., Pattern Formation by Dynamic Systems and Pattern Recognition (pp. 210–222). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Levin, S. A. and L. A. Segel (1985), ‘Pattern Generation in Space and Aspect’, SIAM Review 27, 45–67.
Levin, S. A. (1991), ‘The Problem of Relevant Detail’, in S. Busenberg and M. Martelli, eds., Differential Equations. Models in Biology, Ecology, and Epidemiology (pp. 9–15). Springer Verlag.
Levin, S. A. (1992), ‘The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecology’, Ecology 73, 1943–1967.
Levin, S. A. (1993), ‘Concept of Scale at the Local Level’, in J. R. Ehlringer and C. B. Field, eds., Scaling Physiological Processes. Leaf to Globe (pp. 7–19). Academic Press, 388 pp.
Levin, S. A. (2000), ‘Complex Adaptive Systems: Exploring the Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable’, in F. Browder, ed., Mathematical Challenges of the XXIth Century. American Mathematical Society, Providence RI.
Levin, S. A., A. Morin and T. H. Powell (1989), ‘Patterns and Processes in the Distribution and Dynamics of Antartic Krill’, in Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources-Selected Scientific Papers, Part 1, SC-CAMLR-SSp/5 (pp. 281–299). Australia: Hobart, Tasmania.
Levin, S. A. and S. W. Pacala (1997), ‘Theories of Simplification and Scaling of Spatially Distributed Processes’, in D. Tilman and P. Kareiva, eds., Spatial Ecology: The Role of Space in Population Dynamics and Interspecific Interactions (pp. 271–296). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Levin, S. A. (1999), Fragile Dominion. Massachussets: Helix Books, Perseus Reading.
Levins, R. (1968), Evolution in Changing Environments. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Li, G. and H. Rabitz (1991a), ‘A General Lumping Analysis of a Reaction System Coupled with Diffusion’, Chemical Engineering Science 46, 2041.
Li, G. and H. Rabitz (1991b), ‘A General Analysis of Lumping’, in G. Astarita and S. I. Sandler, eds., Chemical Kinetics, in Kinetic and Thermodynamic Lumping of Multicomponent Mixtures (pp. 49–62). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
Lin, C. C. and L. A. Segel (1974), Mathematics Applied to Deterministic Problems in the Natural Sciences. New York: Macmillan.
Ludwig, D. and C. J. Walters (1985), ‘Are Age-structured Models Appropriate for Catch-effort Data?’, Canadian Journal of Fish Aquatic Science 42, 1066–1072.
Ludwig, D., D. D. Jones and C. S. Holling (1978), ‘Qualitative Analysis of Insect Outbreak Systems: The Spruce Budworm and Forest’, Journal of Animal Ecology 47, 315–332.
MacAuley, F. R. (1922), ‘Pareto’s Laws and the General Problem of Mathematically Describing the Frequency of Income’, Income in the United States: Its Amount ands Distribution 1909–1919. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Major, J. Endemism (a botanical perspective), In A. A. Myers and P. S. Giller, eds., Analytical Biogeography-An Integrated Approach to the Study of Animal and Plant Distributions (pp. 117–146). London: Chapman and Hall.
Makse, H. A., S. Havlin and H. E. Stanley (1995), ‘Modelling Urban Growth Patterns’, Nature 377, 608–612.
Malamud, B. D., G. Morein and D. L. Turcotte (1998), ‘Forest Fires: An Example of Self-organized Critical Behavior’, Science 281, 1840–1842.
Mandelbrot, B. B. (1963), ‘New Methods in Statistical Economics’, Journal of Political Economy 71, 421–440.
Mandelbrot, B. B. (1975), Les Objets Fractals. Forme, Hasard et Dimension. Flammarion, Paris: Nouvelle Bibliothèque Scientifique, 190 pp.
Mandelbrot, B. B. (1997), Fractals and Scaling in Finance. Springer-Verlag.
May, R. M. (1974), ‘Biological Populations with Non-overlapping Generations: Stable Points, Stable Cycles, and Chaos’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 49, 511–524.
May, R. M. and P. F. Stumpf (2000), ‘Species-area Relationships for Tropical Forests’, Science 290, 2084–2086.
McMahon, T. A. (1975), ‘The Mechanical Design of Trees’, Scientific American 233, 93–102.
Mills, T. C. (1999), The Econometric Modelling of Financial Time Series. Cambridge University Press, 372 pp.
Mollison, D. and S. A. Levin (1995), ‘Spatial Dynamics of Parasitism’, in B. T. Greenfell and A. P. Dobson, eds., Ecology of Infectious Diseases in Natural Populations (pp. 384–398). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Nathan, R., U. N. Safriel, I. Noy-Meir and G. Schiller (2000), ‘Spatiotemporal Variation in Seed Dispersal and Recruitment near and Far From Pinus Halepensis Trees’, Ecology 81, 2156–2161.
Nathan, R. (2001), ‘Dispersal Biogeography’, in S. Levin, ed., Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (pp. 127–152). Academic Press.
Niklas, K. (1992), Plant Biomechanics: An Engineering Approach to Plant Form and Function. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 607 pp.
O’Brien, S. T., S. P. Hubbell, P. Spiro, R. Condit and R. B. Foster (1995), ‘Diameter, Height, Crown and Age Relationships in Eight Neotropical Tree Species’, Ecology 76, 1926–1939.
Okubo, A. and S. A. Levin (1989), ‘A Theoretical Framework for Data Analysis of Wind Dispersal of Seeds and Pollen. Ecology 70, 329–338.
Pareto, V. (1896), Cours d’Economie Politique. Reprinted in Pareto. Oeuvres Complètes. Droz, Geneva, 1965.
Peters, R. H. (1983), The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 324 pp.
Pitman N. C. A., J. Terborgh, M. R. Silman and P. V. Nuñez (1999), ‘Tree Species Distribution in an Upper Amazonian Forest’, Ecology 80, 2651–2661.
Plotkin J. B., M. D. Potts, D. W. Yu, S. Bunyavejchewin, R. Condit, R. Foster, S. Hubbell, J. LaFrankie, N. Manokaran, L. Hua Seng, R. Sukumar, M. A. Nowak and P. S. Ashton (2000), ‘Predicting Species Diversity in Tropical Forests’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 97, 10850–10854.
Plotkin, J. B., J. Chave and P. S. Ashton (2002), ‘Cluster Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Malaysian Tree Species’, American Naturalist 60, 629–644.
Prance, G. T. (1973), ‘Phytogeographic Support for the Theory of Pleistocene Forest Refuges in the Amazon Basin, Based on Evidence from Distribution Patterns in Caryocaraceae, Chrysobalanaceae, Dichapetalaceae and Lecythidaceae’, Acta Amazônica 3, 5–28.
Prance, G. T. (1978), ‘Floristic Inventory of the Tropics: Where Do We Stand?’, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 64, 659–684.
Prance, G. T. (1994), ‘A Comparison of the Efficacy of Higher Taxa and Species Numbers in the Assessment of Biodiversity in the Tropics’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 345, 89–99.
Reynolds, P. J., W. Klein and H. E. Stanley (1977), ‘A Real-space Renormalization Group for Site and Bond Percolation’, Journal of Physics C 10, L167.
Rodríguez-Iturbe, I. and A. Rinaldo (1997), Fractal River Basins. Chance and Self-Organization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 547 pp.
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1984), Scaling. Why is Animal Size so Important? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 241 pp.
Segel, L. A. and S. A. Levin (1976), ‘Applications of Nonlinear Stability Theory to the Study of the Effects of Diffusion on Predator Prey Interactions’, in R. A. Piccirelli, ed., Topics in Statistical Mechanics and Biophysics: A Memorial to Julius L. Jackson. AIP New York.
Shinozaki, K., K. Yoda, K. Hozumi and T. Kira (1964), ‘A Quantitative Analysis of Plant Form-The Pipe Model Theory I. Basic Analyses’, Japanese Journal of Ecology 14, 97–105.
Simon, H. A. and A. Ando (1961), ‘Aggregation of Variables in Dynamic Systems’, Econometrica 29, 111–138.
Skellam, J. G. (1951), ‘Random Dispersal in Theoretical Populations’, Biometrika 38, 196–218.
Sornette, A. and D. Sornette (1989), ‘Self-organized Criticality and Earthquakes’, Europhysics Letters 9, 197–202.
Stanley, H. E. (1971), Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, Clarendon Press.
Stull, R. B. (1988), An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Atmospheric Sciences Library, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 670 pp.
Thom, R. (1983), Mathematical Models of Morphogenesis. New York: Halsted Press, 305 pp.
Turing, A. (1952), ‘The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 237, 37–72.
Tykhonov, A. N. (1952), Systems of Differential Equations Containing Small Parameters Multiplying the Derivatives. Mat.
Vogel, S. (1994), Life in Moving Fluids. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 467 pp.
West, G. B., J. H. Brown and B. J. Enquist (1997), ‘A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology’, Science 276, 122–126.
Whittaker, R. J., M. B. Bush and K. Richards (1989), ‘Plant Recolonization and Vegetation Succession on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia’, Ecological Monographs 59, 59–123.
Williams, C. B. (1964), Patterns in the Balance of Nature and Related Problems in Quantitative Ecology. New York: Academic Press.
Wilson, K. G. and J. Kogut (1974), ‘The Renormalization Group and the ε-expansion’, Physics Reports 12C, 75–200.
Yeomans, J. M. (1992), Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, Clarendon Press, 153 pp.
Zipf, G. K. (1949), Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort. Addison Wesley.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this paper
Cite this paper
Chave, J., Levin, S. (2004). Scale and Scaling in Ecological and Economic Systems. In: Dasgupta, P., Mäler, KG. (eds) The Economics of Non-Convex Ecosystems. The Economics of Non-Market Goods and Resources, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2515-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2515-7_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-1864-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-2515-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive