Abstract
Several physical and chemical factors limit the production of biofuels, such as the complex process required for the conversion of plant biomass into ethanol. For example, fossil energy inputs needed for the production of ethanol from corn is 1.59 liters per liter of ethanol. One of the many factors limiting energy output from biomass is the extremely low fraction of sunlight reaching a hectare that is captured by the plants. On average only about 0.1% of the sunlight is captured by green plants per year.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexandrov, G. A. (2007). Carbon stock growth in a forest stand: The power of age. Carbon Balance and Management, 2, 4.
Batty, J. C., & Keller, J. (1980). Energy requirements for irrigation. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture (pp. 35–44). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Berg, C. (2004). World fuel ethanol analysis and outlook. http://www.distill.com/World-Fuel-Ethanol-A&O-2004.html. Accessed January 12, 2010.
Blais, J. F., Mamouny, K., Nlombi, K., Sasseville, J. L., & Letourneau, M. (1995). Les mesures deficacite energetique dans le secteur de leau. In J. L. Sasseville & J. F. Blais (Eds.), Les Mesures deficacite Energetique pour Lepuration des eaux Uses Municipales. Scientific Report 405. Vol. 3. Quebec: INRS-Eau.
Cosgrove-Mather, B. (2002). More pollution than they said: Ethanol plants said releasing toxins. CBS News. May 3, 2002. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/05/03/tech/main508006.shtml. Accessed April 15, 2011.
DOE. (2002). Review of transport issues and comparison of infrastructure costs for a renewable fuels standard. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/service/question3.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Donner, S. D., & Kucharik, C. J. (2008). Corn-based ethanol production compromises goal of reducing nitrogen export by the Mississippi river. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(11), 4513–4518.
EIA. (2008). International energy statistics: Renewables. Washington, DC: Energy Information Agency, US Department of Energy. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=79&pid=79&aid=1. Accessed April 15, 2011.
FAO. (2009). The state of food insecurity in the world. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Farmersfeedus.org. (2010). Against biofuels. http://www.farmersfeedus.org/ia/our-farm-families/. Accessed November 21, 2010.
Ferguson, A. R. B. (2008). The power density of ethanol from Brazilian sugarcane. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Biofuels, solar and wind as renewable energy systems: Benefits and risks (pp. 493–498). New York: Springer.
Ferrett, G. (2007). Biofuels ‘crime against humanity’. BBC News (October 27, 2007). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7065061.stm. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Green, D. L., Hopson, J. L., & Jia, L. (2006). Have we run out of oil yet? Oil peaking analysis from an optimist’s perspective. Energy Policy, 34(5), 515–531.
Hodge, N. (2008). Future sources of energy: What is a cubic mile of oil? http://www.energyandcapital.com/articles/future-sources-energy/787. Accessed April 15, 2011.
IEA. (2004). Biofuels for transport: An international perspective. Paris: International Energy Agency, OECD/IEA. http://www.iea.org/press/pressdetail.asp?PRESS_REL_ID=127. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Johnson, J., Reck, B. K., Wang, T., & Graedel, T. E. (2008). The energy benefit of stainless steel recycling. Energy Policy, 36(1), 181–192.
Koplow, D., & Steeblik, R. (2008). Subsidies to ethanol in the United States. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Biofuels, solar and wind as renewable energy systems: Benefits and risks (pp. 79–108). Dordrecht: Springer.
Kuby, W. R., Markoja, R., & Nackford, S. (1984). Testing and evaluation of on-farm alcohol production facilities. Cincinnati: Acures Corporation, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development. US Environmental Protection Agency.
Larsen, K., Thompson, D., & Harn, A. (2002). Limited and full irrigation comparison for corn and grain sorghum. http://www.colostate.edu/depts/prc/pubs/LimitedandFullIrrigationComparisonforCorn.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Maiorella, B. (1985). Ethanol. In H. W. Blanchm, S. Drew & D. I. C. Wang (Eds.), Comprehensive biotechnology, Vol 3, Chap 43. New York: Pergamon Press.
Martinelli, L. A. (2009). BOD in sugarcane waste. (p. 24). http://www.fapesp.br/eventos/bioen0809/martinelli.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
McCain, J. (2003). Statement of senator McCain on the energy bill. press release. Wednesday, November 21, 2003. http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressOffice.Speeches&ContentRecord_id=faed0c9b-6d5c-46dd-acd2-3163891b6685&Region_id=&Issue_id=79a48974-2bd4-4888-be97-e8a445366a84. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Murray, B. (2004). Dispelling “urban myths” about the oil market: Energy economist explains basic operating conditions of world oil markets. FACS (Foundation for American Communications). Posted December 8, 2004. http://www.facsnet.org/index.php?com_content&view=article&id=183:oil-urban-myths-12-04&catid=75. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Nabuurs, G. J., Masera, O., Andrasko, K., Benitez-Ponce, P., Boer, R., Dutschke, M. E., et al. (2007). Forestry. In B. Metz, et al. (Eds.), Climate change 2007: Mitigation (pp. 541–584). Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
NAS. (2003). Frontiers in agricultural research: Food, health, environment, and communities. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
NASS. (2003). Agricultural chemical usage: 2002 field crops summary (p. 6). May 2003. United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/AgriChemUsFC//2000s/2003/AgriChemUsFC-05-14-2003.pdf. Accessed 15 April 2011.
NASS. (2005). National agricultural statistics service: Farm labor. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1063. Accessed April 15, 2011.
NASS. (2008). Ch XIV statistics of fertilizers and pesticides. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Ag_Statistics/2008/Chap14.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2010.
Newton, P. W. (2001). Human settlements theme report. Australian state of the environment report 2001. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing.
NPR. (2008). World bank chief: Biofuels boosting food prices. National Public Radio. 11 April, 2008. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89545855. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Patzek, T. W. (2004). Thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol biofuel cycle. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 23(6), 519–567.
Patzek, T. W. (2010). A probabilistic analysis of the switchgrass ethanol cycle. Sustainability, 2, 3158–3194.
Patzek, T. W., & Pimentel, D. (2005). Thermodynamics of energy production from biomass. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 24(5–6), 327–364.
Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M., Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, E., et al. (2004). Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues. BioScience, 54(10), 909–918.
Pimentel, D., Doughty, R., Carothers, C., Lamberson, S., Bora, N., & Lee, K. (2002). Energy inputs in crop production in developing and developed countries. In R. Lal, et al. (Eds.), Food Security and environmental quality in the developing world (pp. 129–151). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurtz, D., McNair, M., et al. (1995). Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science, 267, 1117–1123.
Pimentel, D., Marklein, A., Toth, M. A., Karpoff, M., Paul, G.S., McCormack, R., Kyriazis, J., & Krueger, T. (2008). Biofuel impacts on world food supply: Use of fossil fuel, land and water resources. Energies, 1, 41–78. doi:10.3390/en1010041, online, open access. http://www.mdpi.org/energies/papers/en1020041.pdf.
Pimentel, D., Marklein, A., Toth, M. A., Karpoff, M., Paul, G. S., McCormack, R., et al. (2009). Food versus biofuels: Environmental and economic costs. Human Ecology, 37, 1–12.
Pimentel, D., & Patzek, T. (2008). Ethanol production: Energy and economic issues related to US and Brazilian sugarcane. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Biofuels, solar and wind as renewable energy systems: Benefits and risk (pp. 357–371). Dordrecht: Springer.
Pimentel, D., & Pimentel, M. (2008). Food, energy and society (3rd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group).
Portland Cement Association. (2011). Environment and energy. Government affairs: Tools for concrete thinking. Portland Cement Association. http://www.bipac.net/page.asp?g=pca&content=issue_energy&parent=PCA. Accessed April 20, 2011.
Righelato, R. (2007). Biofuels or forests? Scitizen, August 23, 2007. http://scitizen.com/authors/Renton-Righelato-a-809_s_5c85358b289831dc490e29b55191d47e.html. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Rosenthal, E. (2007). World food stocks dwindling worldwide, UN warns. New York Times, December 17, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/17/world/europe/17iht-food.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=world%20food%20stock%20dwindling%20rapidly,%20UN%20warns&st=cse. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Roushey, J. (2010). A new standard in steam measurement: Rising energy costs and pending regulations calls for a better way. Plant Services.com. http://www.plantservices.com/articles/2010/01SteamMeasurement.html. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Stanton, T. L., & LeValley, S. (1999). Feed composition for cattle and sheep. Colorado State University. Cooperative Extension, Report No. 1.615. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/livestk/01615.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Supalla, R. (2007). Biofuels: An emerging water resources hazard. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Agricultural Economics Department, Presentations, Working Papers, and Gray Literature: Agricultural Economics. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ageconworkpap/40/. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Sylvester-Bradley, R. (2008). Critique of Searchinger (2008) & related papers assess indirect effects of biofuels on land-use change. ADAS Support of the Gallagher Review. http://www.globalbioenergy.org/uploads/media/0806_ADAS_-_Seachinger_critique.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
USCB. (2004). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2004–2005 (124th ed.). Washington, DC: United States Census Bureau, US Government Printing Office.
USCB. (2008). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2009 (128th ed.). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. United States Census Bureau.
USDA. (1997). Farm and ranch irrigation survey (1998). 1997 Census of agriculture. Vol. 3, Special Studies. Part 1. http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/1997/Farm_and_Ranch_Irrigation_Survey/fris97.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
USDA. (2007). Agricultural statistics 2007. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. US Department of Agriculture.
USDA. (2008). Agricultural statistics 2008. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. US Department of Agriculture.
Venkatarama Reddy, B. V., & Jagadish, K. S. (2003). Embodied energy of common and alternative building materials and technologies. Energy and Buildings, 35(2), 129–137.
Werekoo-Brobby, C., & Hagen, E. B. (1996). Biomass conversion and technology. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
WHO. (2000). Turning the tide of malnutrition: Responding to the challenge of the 21st century. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/mip2001/files/2232/NHDbrochure.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Ziegler, J. (2007). UN rapporteur calls for biofuel moratorium. http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/index/UN_rapporteur_calls_for_biofuel_moratorium.html?cid=6189782. Accessed April 15, 2011.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported in part by the Podell Emeriti Award at Cornell University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Readers should send their comments on this paper to BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, J., Palmer, S. & Pimentel, D. Energy production from corn. Environ Dev Sustain 14, 221–231 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9318-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9318-4