Abstract
This study is the first to investigate the positive impact of a storytelling intervention based on the social information processing model in reducing reactive and proactive aggression among schoolchildren. The participants were 4,086 Grade 1 to 4 students from 15 randomly selected elementary schools in Hong Kong. Using the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire, 371 schoolchildren at risk of aggression were identified based on scores of one standard deviation above the mean and randomly assigned to the experimental, placebo, and control groups. Children’s anger, social communication skills, empathy, and forgiveness were examined using a qualitative method. Twelve children and 11 caregivers were randomly selected from the three groups to participate in qualitative interviews. Content analysis was adopted to analyze the interview data. We found that the intervention reduced reactive aggression by enhancing anger control, intent attribution, social communication skills, and forgiveness among reactive aggressors. However, the intervention did not improve empathy among proactive aggressors. Overall, the storytelling intervention had more encouraging results for schoolchildren with reactive aggression than those with proactive aggression. The current findings suggest that teachers and school counselors should adopt a social information processing-based storytelling intervention to reduce proactive and reactive aggression and bullying among schoolchildren.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Annis Lai Chu Fung. The data are not publicly available due to their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.
References
Aminimanesh, A., Ghazavi, Z., & Mehrabi, T. (2019). Effectiveness of the puppet show and storytelling methods on children’s behavioral problems. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 24(1), 61–65. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijnmr.IJNMR_115_15
Belgrave, F. Z., Reed, M. C., Plybon, L. E., Butler, D. S., Allison, K. W., & Davis, T. (2004). An evaluation of Sisters of Nia: A cultural program for African American girls. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798404266063
Bengtsson, M. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001
Brown, J. R., Donelan-McCall, N., & Dunn, J. (1996). Why talk about mental states? The significance of children’s conversations with friends, siblings, and mothers. Child Development, 67(3), 836–849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01767.x
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67(3), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01778.x
Dodge, K. A. (1991). The structure and function of reactive and proactive aggression. The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression, 16(5), 201–218.
Dodge, K. A. (2006). Translational science in action: Hostile attributional style and the development of aggressive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 18(3), 791–814. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579406060391
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1146–1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1146
Dodge, K. A., & Crick, N. R. (1990). Social information-processing bases of aggressive behavior in children. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002
Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.37
Dodge, K. A., Price, J. M., Bachorowski, J.-A., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99(4), 385–392. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.99.4.385
Dyer, J. R., Shatz, M., & Wellman, H. M. (2000). Young children’s storybooks as a source of mental state information. Cognitive Development, 15(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2014(00)00017-4
Elo, S., & Kyngäs, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(1), 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x
Enright, R. D., Knutson, J. A., Holter, A. C., Baskin, T., & Knutson, C. (2007). Waging peace through forgiveness in Belfast, Northern Ireland II: Educational programs for mental health improvement of children. Journal of Research in Education, 17(1), 63–78.
Evans, C. B., Fraser, M. W., & Cotter, K. L. (2014). The effectiveness of school-based bullying prevention programs: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(5), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.07.004
Ferguson, C. J., Miguel, C. S., Kilburn, J. C., Jr., & Sanchez, P. (2007). The effectiveness of school-based anti-bullying programs: A meta-analytic review. Criminal Justice Review, 32(4), 401–414.
Fite, P. J., Rathert, J. L., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2012). Social problems as a mediator of the link between reactive aggression and withdrawn/depressed symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(2), 184–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9461-4
Fraser, M. W., Galinsky, M. J., Smokowski, P. R., Day, S. H., Terzian, M. A., Rose, R. A., & Guo, S. (2005). Social information-processing skills training to promote social competence and prevent aggressive behavior in the third grades. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 1045–1055. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.6.1045
Fung, A. L. C., Raine, A., & Gao, Y. (2009). Cross-cultural generalizability of the reactive–proactive aggression questionnaire (RPQ). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(5), 473–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890903088420
Fung, A. L. C., Gerstein, L. H., Yuichung, C., & Hutchison, A. (2013). Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for Hong Kong students that engage in bullying. Revista De Cercetare Si Interventie Sociala, 42, 68–84.
Fung, A. L. C., & Lee, T. K. H. (2018). Effectiveness of Chinese martial arts and philosophy to reduce reactive and proactive aggression in schoolchildren. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 39(5), 404–414. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000565
Fung, A. L. C., & Wong, M. K. (2023). An innovative social information processing model-based storytelling intervention to reduce reactive and proactive aggression in schoolchildren: A randomized controlled trial with a longitudinal design [Manuscript submitted for publication].
Gauché, M., & Mullet, E. (2005). Do we forgive physical aggression in the same way that we forgive psychological aggression? Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 31(6), 559–570. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20108
Gonçalves, L. L., Voos, M. C., Almeida, M. H. M. D., & Caromano, F. A. (2017). Massage and storytelling reduce aggression and improve academic performance in children attending elementary school. Occupational Therapy International, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5087145
Holter, A. C., Magnuson, C., Knutson, C., Knutson Enright, J., & Enright, R. D. (2008). The forgiving child: The impact of forgiveness education on excessive anger for elementary-aged children in Milwaukee’s central city. Journal of Research in Education, 18(1), 82–93.
Hubbard, J. A., McAuliffe, M. D., Morrow, M. T., & Romano, L. J. (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: Precursors, outcomes, processes, experiences, and measurement. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 95–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00610.x
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., Relyea, N., & Simons, R. F. (2002). Observational, physiological, and self–report measures of children’s anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development, 73(4), 1101–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00460
Isbell, R., Sobol, J., Lindauer, L., & Lowrance, A. (2004). The effects of storytelling and story reading on the oral language complexity and story comprehension of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(3), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ECEJ.0000048967.94189.a3
Karniol, R. (2012). Storybook-induced arousal and preschoolers’ empathic understanding of negative affect in self, others, and animals in stories. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26(3), 346–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2012.684423
Karremans, J. C., & Aarts, H. (2007). The role of automaticity in determining the inclination to forgive close others. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(6), 902–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.012
Kerr, M. A., & Schneider, B. H. (2008). Anger expression in children and adolescents: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(4), 559–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.08.001
Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage Publications.
Leff, S. S., Gullan, R. L., Paskewich, B. S., Abdul-Kabir, S., Jawad, A. F., Grossman, M., Munro, M. A., & Power, T. J. (2009). An initial evaluation of a culturally adapted social problem-solving and relational aggression prevention program for urban African-American relationally aggressive girls. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 37(4), 260–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852350903196274
Lenhart, J., Lenhard, W., Vaahtoranta, E., & Suggate, S. (2020). More than words: Narrator engagement during storytelling increases children’s word learning, story comprehension, and on-task behavior. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 338–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.12.009
McCullough, M. E. (2001). Forgiveness: Who does it and how do they do it? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 194–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00147
McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6), 1586–1603. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1586
Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, B. J. (2017). The impact of parenting on emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12238
Moser, A., & Korstjens, I. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. European Journal of General Practice, 24(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375091
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 611–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.611
Peck, J. (1989). Using storytelling to promote language and literacy development. The Reading Teacher, 43(2), 138–141.
Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Liu, J. (2006). The reactive–proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 32(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115
Rapp, H., Wang Xu, J., & Enright, R. D. (2022). A meta-analysis of forgiveness education interventions’ effects on forgiveness and anger in children and adolescents. Child Development, 93, 1249–1269. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13771
Röll, J., Koglin, U., & Petermann, F. (2012). Emotion regulation and childhood aggression: Longitudinal associations. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(6), 909–923.
Rose, A. J., & Asher, S. R. (1999). Children’s goals and strategies in response to conflicts within a friendship. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.69
Smith, P. K., & Ananiadou, K. (2003). The nature of school bullying and the effectiveness of school-based interventions. Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 5(2), 189–209. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991804210
Sukhodolsky, D. G., Solomon, R. M., & Perine, J. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral, anger-control intervention for elementary school children: A treatment-outcome study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy, 10(3), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009488701736
Symons, D. K., Peterson, C. C., Slaughter, V., Roche, J., & Doyle, E. (2005). Theory of mind and mental state discourse during book reading and story-telling tasks. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 81–102. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151004X21080
Underwood, M. K., Coie, J. D., & Herbsman, C. R. (1992). Display rules for anger and aggression in school-age children. Child Development, 63(2), 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01633.x
Van der Wal, R. C., Karremans, J. C., & Cillessen, A. H. (2016). Interpersonal forgiveness and psychological well-being in late childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 62(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.62.1.0001
van der Wal, R. C., Karremans, J. C., & Cillessen, A. H. (2017). Causes and consequences of children’s forgiveness. Child Development Perspectives, 11(2), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12216
van Dijk, A., de Castro, B. O., Thomaes, S., & Poorthuis, A. M. (2018). ‘Was it meant to be mean?’Young children’s hostile attributional bias and intent attribution skills. Social Development, 27(4), 683–698. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12304
Van Schoiack-Edstrom, L., Frey, K. S., & Beland, K. (2002). Changing adolescents’ attitudes about relational and physical aggression: An early evaluation of a school-based intervention. School Psychology Review, 31(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2002.12086151
Verhoef, R. E., Alsem, S. C., Verhulp, E. E., & De Castro, B. O. (2019). Hostile intent attribution and aggressive behavior in children revisited: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 90(5), 525–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13255
Watson, H., Rapee, R., & Todorov, N. (2017). Forgiveness reduces anger in a school bullying context. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(11), 1642–1657. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515589931
Wilson, S. J., Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (2003). The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 136–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.1.136
Yuill, N., & Perner, J. (1988). Intentionality and knowledge in children’s judgments of actor’s responsibility and recipient’s emotional reaction. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 358–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.358
Zeman, J., & Shipman, K. (1996). Children’s expression of negative affect: Reasons and methods. Developmental Psychology, 32(5), 842–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.32.5.842
Funding
This work was supported by the General Research Fund of the University Grant Council, Hong Kong SAR, China (grant number: 11611517).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclaimers
This manuscript represents authors’ own viewpoint, and not that of an official position of the institution or funder.
Conflict of Interest
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Fung, A.L.C., Wong, M.K. & Fu, L. A Qualitative Method to Examine the Positive Impact of a Storytelling Intervention in Reducing Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Young Schoolchildren. Applied Research Quality Life 18, 1989–2010 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10174-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10174-z