Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Development of Spiritual Poverty Measurements of an Urban Population Based on the Concept of Purifying the Self (Tazkiyah Al-Nafs)

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper aims to develop a measurement of spiritual poverty for an urban residents based on the spiritual concept and practice of purifying of the self (Tazkiyah Al-Nafs). This follows the process of cleansing of the self, where the nature of bad practices are replaced with those of good practices. A quantitative approach was utilised by distributing questionnaires to 528 urban Muslim households in Kuala Lumpur, Selangor and Putrajaya, Malaysia, which was then analysed using descriptive analysis. This was, then, followed by the usability assessments by 14 experts from academia and industry, where the data was analysed using the ‘fuzzy delphi method'. Findings indicated that 27.84% of respondents experienced spiritual poverty relating to the emotional indicator, 17.42% experienced from a perceptual indicator, while 91.86% of respondents experienced poverty from a practices indicator perspective. The study points out that the elements of emotion, perception and practice as indicators holds significance in measuring spiritual poverty with a percentage expert consensus of 78.6% on emotion and perception indicators and 85.7% on practices indicator. The results gives credence to the expansion of the concept of multidimensional poverty, to include measuring psycho-spiritual deprivations as one component of poverty in addition to measuring both monetary and non-monetary factors as currently being advocated. This study calls for further exploration of this important area relating to self development, which has been overlooked in poverty measurements.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Source: Hawwā (1997)

Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Source: Ragin (2009)

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The writing on the concept of self in terms of both Islam and the Western framework derived from the work of M.S.Munsoor, from his publication: Wellbeing and the Worshipper: Insights into an Islamic Spiritual Order, Springer Nature, Switzerland AG, 2021. We wish to acknowledge and offer our appreciation to Springer for this purpose.

References

  • Abdul Ghafar, M. N. (2006). Penyelidikan Pendidikan, cet. ke-6. Skudai: Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

  • Abdullah, A., & Sharif, M. F. (2019). The concept of Islamic personality and spiritual development. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(9), 936–949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adler, M., & Ziglio, E. (1996). Gazing into the Oracle: The Delphi Method and its Application to Social Policy and Public Health. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Attas, S.M.N. (2001). Prolegomena to the metaphysics: An exposition of the fundamental element of the worldview of Islam (2nd ed.). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: International Institute of Islamic Thought & Civilization (ISTAC).

  • Al-Ghazālī,. (2000). Iḥya’ Ulūm Ad-Dīn. Dār al-Taqwā līl al-Ṭurāth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkire, S. & Santos, M.E. (2010). Acute multidimensional poverty: A new index for developing countries. OPHI Working Paper 38, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, University of Oxford.

  • Andreoli, F., Mussini, M., Prete, V., & Zoli, C. (2022). Urban poverty: Measurement theory and evidence from American Cities. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 19(1), 599–642.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azadbakhti, Z., & Parvini, K. (2020). Spiritual poverty in Islam (1): Its harms from the perspective of the Holy Qur’an and hadiths. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 7(9), 52–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, B. A. B., & Todd, N. R. (2019). Religious and spiritual beliefs uniquely predict poverty attributions. Social Justice Research, 32, 459–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beyers, J. (2014). The effect of religion on poverty. HTS Teologiese Studies/theological Studies. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v70i1.2614

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourke, J. (2003). Fear and anxiety: writing about emotion in modern history. History Workshop Journal, 55(1), 117–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaghan, D. (2005). The influence of spiritual growth on adolescents' initiative and responsibility for self-care. Pediatric nursing.

  • Cates, W.M., (1984) Practical guide to educational research. United Kingdom: Pearson College Div.

  • Che Mat, S. H., Hakim, R. A., & Jumali, S. N. (2012). Alternative poverty measurement using multi-dimensional poverty index in the district of Baling. Kedah. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 46(1), 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, L., Wong, F., & Chan, M. (2007). Relationship of nurses' spirituality to their understanding and practice of spiritual care. Journal of advanced nursing.

  • Cozzarelli, C., Wilkinson, A. V., & Tagler, M. J. (2001). Attitudes toward the poor and attributions for poverty. Journal of Social Issues, 57(2), 207–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darin-Mattsson, A., Fors, S., & Kåreholt, I. (2017). Different indicators of socioeconomic status and their relative importance as determinants of health in old age. International Journal for Equity in Health, 16(1), 173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0670-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Degan, T. J., Kelly, P. J., Robinson, L. D., Deane, F. P., & Smith, A. M. (2021). Health literacy of people living with mental illness or substance use disorders: A systematic review. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 15(6), 1454–1469. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.13090

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Easterlin, R. A., McVey, L. A., Switek, M., & Sawangfa, O. (2010). The happiness–income paradox revisited. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(52), 22463–22468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S. (1973a). The self-concept revisited: or a theory of a theory, American Psychologist

  • Epstein, S. (1973b). The self-concept revisited: or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist, 28(5), 404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frijda, N. H. (2004). Emotions and Action. In A. S. R. Manstead, N. Frijda, & A. Fischer (Eds.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium (pp. 158–173). Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Glassman, W. E., & Hadad, M. (2004). Approaches to Psychology. Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it can Matter More than IQ. Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (1999). Working with Emotional Intelligence. Bantam Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, W., & Ma, Y. (2022). A fuzzy analysis of spiritual poverty alleviation in deep poverty-stricken areas of gansu. The Singapore Economic Review.

  • Hamjah, S.N. (2008). Pendekatan Da'wah al-Irsyad al-Nafsiyy Menurut al-Ghazali: Satu Kajian di Pusat Kaunseling Majlis Agama Islam Negeri Sembilan (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Sains Malaysia).

  • Harris Ostwald, C. (2009). A deeper look at poverty: Challenges for evangelical development workers. Transformation, 26(2), 130–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, K. (2007). Performing piety and islamic modernity in a turkish village. Ethnology.

  • Hawā, S. (1997). Tarbiyatunā al-Rūḥiyah. Dār al-Salām.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawwa, S. (1988). Hadhihi tajribati wa hadhihi shahadati. Beirut: Dar `Ammar.

  • Hawwa, S. (1999). Tarbiyyatuna al-ruhiyyah. Kaherah: Dar al-Salam.

  • Hawwa, S. (2001). al-Islam. Kaherah: Dar al-Salam.

  • Helminski, K. (1999). The Knowing Heart: A Sufi Path of Transformation. Boston London: Shambala.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim, F., Wan Abas, W. A. B., & Cheok, N. S. (2008). Salat : Benefits from the Science Perspective. Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim, N., Amit, N., Shahar, S., Wee, L. H., Ismail, R., et al. (2019). Do depression literacy, mental ill- ness beliefs and stigma influence mental health help-seeking attitude? A cross-sectional study of sec- ondary school and university students from B40 households in Malaysia. BMC Public Health, 19(4), 544. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6862-6. PMID: 31196033.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ismail, M. (2011). Kaedah Penyelidikan Kuantitatif dalam Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

  • Jamil, N., & Che Mat, S. H. (2014). The reality of poverty: A theoretical study. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 48(1), 167–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeli, N. A., & Ismail, R. (2020). Poverty attributions, just world belief, decision making styles and subjective wellbeing of low-income group (b40) in Malaysia. Jurnal Psikologi Malaysia, 34(3), 78–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional wellbeing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(38), 16489–16493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kakwata, F. (2018). Witchcraft and poverty in Africa: A Pastoral Perspective. Black Theology, 16(1), 22–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(30), 607–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahana, E., Pappa, E., & Niakas, D. (2010). The impact of ethnicity, place of residence and socioeconomic status on health-related quality of life: Results from a Greek health survey. International Journal of Public Health, 55(5), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-010-0171-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Libório, M. P., Ekel, P. Y., Martinuci, O. D. S., Figueiredo, L. R., Hadad, R. M., Lyrio, R. M., & Bernardes, P. (2021). Fuzzy set based intra-urban inequality indicator. Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 56(2), 667–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y. H., Liou, S. H., & Chen, C. H. (2008). Spiritual care in nursing practice. Hu Li Za Zhi the Journal of Nursing, 55(3), 69–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, C., Zimmermann, C., Gagliese, L., Li, M., & Rodin, G. (2011). Sources of spiritual well-being in advanced cancer. BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care, 1(2), 149–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mafruhat, AY., Riani, W., Haviz, M. (2019). The determinant of spiritual poverty in Bandung. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Social and Humaniora Reserach Symposium Advances in Social Science Education and Humanities Research 409: 53–56

  • Martínez, B. B., & Custódio, R. P. (2014). Relationship between mental health and spiritual wellbeing among hemodialysis patients: a correlation study. Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 132, 23–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. (2011). Towards a Psychology of Being. Martino Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masroom, M.N., Muhamad, S.N. & Panatik, S.A. (2013). Iman, Islam dan Ihsan: Kaitannya dengan kesihatan jiwa, proceeding, seminar pendidikan & penyelidikan islam (SePPIM13), Fakulti Tamadun Islam, UTM Johor Bahru, 17–18.

  • Masyuri. (2012). Prinsip-prinsip Tazkiyah Al-Nafs dalam Islam dan hubungannya dengan kesihatan mental. Jurnal an-Nida’, 37(2), 95–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mat Akhir, N. S., & Hamjah, S. H. (2007). Riyadah al-nafs menurut al-Ghazali dan aplikasinya dalam kaunseling di PK MAINS. Jurnal Usuluddin, 26(3), 45–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickelson, K. D., & Hazlett, E. (2014). Why me?: Low-income women’s poverty attributions, mental health, and social class perceptions. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 71(9–10), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0414-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Min Fui, W., Abdul Majid, H., Ismail, R., Su, T. T., Maw Pin, T., et al. (2022). Psychosocial factors associated with mental health and quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic among low-income urban dwellers in Peninsular Malaysia. PLoS ONE, 17(8), e0264886. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264886

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamad Zulkifli, N.A., Wahid, H. & Mohd Noor, M.A. (2018). Persepsi golongan miskin terhadap kemiskinan dan implikasinya dalam merealisasikan pembangunan nilai Islam: Kajian terhadap penduduk miskin bandar Kota Bharu, Kelantan. In: Proceeding, The Malaysian National Economic Conference (PERKEM), Faculty of Economics and Management, The National University of Malaysia, 26–27 September 2018.

  • Mohamad, A. D., Hamjah, S. H., & Mokhtar, A. I. (2018). The concept of Tazkiyah Al-Nafs according to al-Harith bin Asad al-Muhasibi. Jurnal Sultan Alaudin Sulaiman Shah, 4(1), 115–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohd Khir, A. (2014). Persepsi remaja orang asli terhadap faktor kemiskinan. In: Proceeding, 6th International Conference on Humanities and Social Sciences 2014, The Royale Chulan Hotel, Kuala Lumpur.

  • Mtapuri, O., & Mazengwa, P. (2013). Of spirituality and poverty: A zimbabwean cultural perspective. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology.

  • Musa, A. S. (2017). Spiritual care intervention and spiritual well-being: Jordanian Muslim nurses’ perspectives. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 35(1), 53–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noordin, Z. N., & Abdul Rahman, Z. (2017). Perbandingan proses Tazkiyah Al-Nafs menurut Imam al-Ghazali dan Ibn Qayyim. Jurnal Al-Turath, 2(1), 37–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phan, P. V., & O’Brien, M. (2019). Multidimensional wellbeing inequality in a developing country: A case study of Vietnam. Social Indicators Research, 145(1), 157–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibn Qayyim, Muḥammad Ibn Abī Bakr Ibn Qayyim al-Jawazīyah. (1961). Ighāthah al-Lahfān min Maṣāyid al-Syaiṭān, vol. 1. N.pp: Syarīkah Kutūb wa Maṭba'ah Muṣṭafā al-Bāb al-Ḥalabi wa Aulāduhu.

  • Ragin, C.C. (2009). Qualitative comparative analysis using Fuzzy Sets (fsQCA) In: Configurational Comparative Methods: Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Techniques, ed. Benoit Rihoux & Charles C. Ragin. London: Sage Publications

  • Rahman, M., Yucel, S. (2016). The Mujaddid of his age: Al-Ghazali and his inner spiritual journey.

  • Rev, C. (2021). An analysis of the traditional religious thought and its impact on poverty: A case study of the Amansie traditional area, Ashanti region, Ghana. E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

  • Sa’ari, C. Z. (2007). Peranan Penyucian Jiwa (Tazkiyah al-Anfus) Terhadap Pembangunan Insan dalam Masyarakat Bertamadun. In: Proceeding, Seminar Tasawuf Negeri Sembilan 2007, Jabatan Mufti Kerajaan Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus.

  • Sa’ari, C. Z., & Syed Omar, S. F. (2014). Implementasi Tasawuf dalam Penghayatan Rukun Islam dan Pengaruhnya Kepada Penyucian Jiwa (Tazkiyah al- Nafs) Menurut Sa’id Hawwa. MANU Jurnal Pusat Penataran Ilmu & Bahasa., 20, 165–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saari, C. Z., Zainal Abidin, M. S., Ahmad, S. S., Syed Abdul Rahman, S. M. H., Che Nordin, M. K. N., Syed Muhsin, S. B., et al. (2020). The development of Islamic psychospiritual scale for drug addicts. Jurnal Afkar, 22(2), 279–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Said, N. (2014). The significance of al-Ghazālī and his works for Indonesian muslims: A preliminary study. Studia Islamika, 3(3).

  • Saito, M., Kondo, K., Kondo, N., Abe, A., Ojima, T., Suzuki, K., & JAGES group. (2014). Relative deprivation, poverty, and subjective health: JAGES cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 9(10), e111169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salleh, M. S. (2013). Spirituality and the new form of poverty management. The International Journal of Religion and Spirituality in Society, 2(2), 89–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salleh, M. S. (2017). Contemporary vision of poverty and islamic strategy for poverty alleviation. SAGE Open, 7(2), 2158244017697153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheer, M. (2012). Are emotions a kind of practice (and is that what makes them have a history)? A bourdieuian approach to understanding emotion. History and Theory, 51(2), 193–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, R. (2010). An islamic approach to psychology and mental health. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 13(6), 547–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapa, Z. (2001). Insan kamil: Ciri dan proses pembentukan. Jurnal Afkar, 2(1), 43–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strotmann, H., & Volkert, J. (2018). Multidimensional poverty index and happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19, 167–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suhrawardi, Shahab–u’d-Din ‘Umar b. Muhammad. (1991). The Awarif-ul-Maarif. (Wilberforce Clarke, H., Trans.). Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.

  • Syaputra, E. (2017). Perilaku konsumsi masyarakat modern perspektif Islam: telaah pemikiran imam Al-Ghazali dalam ihya’ulumuddin. Falah: Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah 2(2): 144-145.

  • Taber, K. S. (2018). The use of cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instrument in science education. Research in Science Education, 48(1), 1273–1296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, A., & Schep-Akkerman, A. E. (2018). Competence and frequency of provision of spiritual care by nurses in the Netherlands. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 32(4), 1314–1321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B., Osborne, D., & Rudolph, U. (2010). An attributional analysis of reactions to poverty: The political ideology of the giver and the perceived morality of the receiver. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(2), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683103876

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, R. G., & Marmot, M. (2003). Social Determinants of Health: The Solid Facts. World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witters, D., & Liu, D. (2017). Income buys happiness diferently based on where you live. Gallup Blog. Retrieved January 15, 2018, from https://news.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/210011/income-buyshappiness-differently-based-live.aspx?g_source=WWWV7HP&g_medium=topic&g_campa%20ign=tiles.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Shariah and Economy, Academy of Islamic Studies, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Muhamad Zulfadli Abdul Rahman

  2. Department of Aqidah and Islamic Thought, Academy of Islamic Studies, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Mohd Syukri Zainal Abidin

  3. Department of Economics and Muamalat, Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

    Faezy Adenan

  4. Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Kamaruzaman Jusoff

  5. Metanoia Institute, London, UK

    Mohamed Safiullah Munsoor

Authors
  1. Muhamad Zulfadli Abdul Rahman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mohd Syukri Zainal Abidin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Faezy Adenan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kamaruzaman Jusoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mohamed Safiullah Munsoor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mohd Syukri Zainal Abidin.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table

Table 8 Multiple definitions of the self in western psychology
Full size table

8

Appendix 2

See Fig. 

Fig. 4
figure 4

Stages of development of the Nafs (Self)

Full size image

4

Appendix 3

See Table 9.

Table 9 Indicator of emotion and perception
Full size table

Appendix 4

See Table 10.

Table 10 Indicator of practices
Full size table

Appendix 5

See Table 11.

Table 11 Sociodemographics
Full size table

Appendix 6

See Table 12.

Table 12 Expert demographics
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rahman, M.Z.A., Abidin, M.S.Z., Adenan, F. et al. Development of Spiritual Poverty Measurements of an Urban Population Based on the Concept of Purifying the Self (Tazkiyah Al-Nafs). Soc Indic Res 169, 943–972 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03188-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03188-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation