Who Will Sustain a Culture of Democracy in Post-Communist States? Examining Patterns of Democratic Competence among Youth in Albania and Belarus

Abstract

Research is mixed on the current state of democratic consolidation in transitioning states and whether young people are prepared to help sustain a culture of democracy. This study draws on the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competencies for Democratic Culture and the framework of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study to explore patterns of democratic orientation among adolescents in Albania and Belarus (N = 711). Latent profile analyses identified five groups of democratically oriented adolescents in both states: (a) All-around citizens, (b) Idealistic and Disengaged, (c) Duty-oriented, (d) Diversity Enthusiasts and (e) Alienated. Results further revealed that profiles were unevenly distributed between the two countries and that profile membership was differentially related to adolescents’ perceptions of school climate and their intentions to participate in civic and political life. The article concludes with a discussion of how consideration of heterogeneity within democratically-competent youth can inform efforts to promote a culture of democracy in transitioning societies.

Appendix

Item wording for study variables.

Support for conventional democratic citizenship Support for conventional citizen participation was measured using a 6-item scale that includes statements about different kinds of participation. Students were asked how important they thought each form of participation was for being a good citizen. Response options ranged 1 (not important at all) to 4 (very important). Sample behaviors ranged from following political news and engaging in political discussions to voting in national elections and joining a political party. Responses were averaged into a single score, with higher scores indicating a greater perception that conventional citizenship is important. The scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.73 for the pooled sample and 0.74 and 0.72 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Support for social movement democratic citizenship The study used a 4-item scale to measure adolescents’ views on less traditional forms of citizen involvement, such as participating in activities that focus on benefiting local communities, protecting environment, or promoting human rights. Participants were asked how important, on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (not important at all) to 4 (very important), they thought it was for a good citizen to participate in such activities. Responses were averaged into a single score, with higher scores indicating a greater perception that social movement citizenship is important. The scale demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77 for the pooled sample, 0.78 and 0.74 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Gender equality attitudes Attitudes toward gender quality were measured using a 6-item gender equality scale. Sample statements included the following: “Men and women should get equal pay when they are doing the same jobs,” “Men and women should have equal opportunities to take part in government”, “Men are better qualified to be political leaders than women,” and “Men and women should get equal pay when they are doing the same jobs.” Adolescents marked their agreement with each statement on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Negatively phrased items were reverse coded. All items were averaged to create a scaled measure in which higher scores indicated greater endorsement of gender equality rights. Internal consistency of this measure in the present study was good, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.78 for the pooled sample, 0.79 and 0.76 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Tolerance toward minority groups Five statements about immigrants were used to construct a scale assessing adolescents’ attitudes towards this group. Sample items in this measure included statements such as, “All ethnic/ racial groups should have an equal chance to get a good education in Albania / Belarus,” “Schools should teach students to respect members of all ethnic/ racial groups,” “Members of all ethnic/racial groups should have the same rights and responsibilities.” Adolescents marked their agreement with each item on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). All items were averaged to create a scaled measure in which higher scores indicated greater endorsement of rights and opportunities available for ethnic and racial groups in adolescents’ societies. The scale demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89 for the pooled sample, 0.87 and 0.85 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Interest in political issues Adolescents’ interest in social and political issues, national and international in scope, was measured via a 5-item scale. Adolescents were asked how interested they were, on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all interested) to 4 (very interested), in political or social issues of their countries, politics in other countries, or environmental issues. Answers were averaged into a single variable, with higher scores indicating greater interest in political and social issues. Internal consistency of this measure, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.80 for the pooled sample, 0.79 and 0.79 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Internal political efficacy Internal political efficacy was measured using a 5-item scale consisting of statements about adolescents’ perceived understanding of politics and their perceived ability and willingness to express opinions about political issues. Responses were combined into a scaled variable, where higher scores indicated greater levels of internal political self-efficacy. The scale demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86 for the overall sample and 0.87 and 0.83 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Citizenship efficacy The measure of adolescents’ citizenship efficacy included a series of statements that were designed to capture students’ confidence in their ability to accomplish various tasks related to political and civic participation. Sample tasks included discussing a newspaper article about a conflict between countries, articulating an argument in favor or against a political issue, and organizing a group of students to achieve changes at school. These items were averaged to form a measure of citizenship efficacy, where higher scores indicated higher levels of students’ confidence in their ability to accomplish civic and political tasks. The scale demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.85 for the overall sample and 0.84 and 0.85 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Trust in societal institutions The study questionnaire contained a number of items that assessed students’ confidence in civic and political institutions in their country. Students were asked how much they trusted various institutions in their country, such as courts, the national government, political parties, police, and others. Response options ranged from 1 (not at all) to 4 (completely). Answers were averaged into a single scale, with higher scores indicating greater levels of trust in essential institutions of their countries. The scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.82 for the overall sample and 0.83 and 0.81 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

Demographic characteristics The study questionnaire included a combination of statements and questions to describe demographic characteristics of participants. The following variables were used: gender (male = 1, female = 0), grade, caregivers’ education (high school or less = 0, vocational training = 1, college = 2, postgraduate degree = 3) and language(s) spoken by the student (language use was measured via multiple choice options, where students chose languages they could speak).

Expected civic and political participation Adolescents were asked whether they would participate in different activities related to social and political issues when they become adults. Sample activities included the following: voting in national and local elections; joining a political party; standing as a candidate in local elections; contributing to an online discussion forum about social and political issues; and joining an organization for a political or social cause. Adolescents marked their anticipated participation in each activity, using response options from 1 (I will certainly not do this) to 4 (I will certainly do this). Responses were averaged to form three subscales: (a) electoral participation, (b) political participation, and (c) informal participation.

Openness of school climate Quality of classroom climate was measured by six statements that assessed the frequency of open positive teacher-student interactions, such as encouraging students to express their opinions, discuss controversial issues, presenting several sides of the issue, and students’ willingness to express opinions that are different from their peers. Response options ranged from 1 (never) to 4 (often). Answers were averaged into a single scale, where higher scores indicated greater perceptions of open classroom climate. The measure demonstrated good internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.79 for the pooled sample, 0.79 and 0.77 for Albanian and Belarusian samples, respectively.

See Table

Table 5 Fit indices for latent profiles (Albanian sample only)

5.